Bibliography

[*] Cennino Cennini, Il Libro D’Arte, transcribed and translated by Merrifield. 1844. A Treatise on Painting. Written by Cennino Cennini in 1434: p. 21

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[*] A Very Proper Treatise: Wherein is Briefly Sett Forthe the Arte of Limming. 1573: f. vii https://archive.org/details/verypropertreati00lond/page/n4/mode/1up

Translation by Birgit Reissland. In the original German: “Jtem wiltu schwartz farw / temperiren ze entwerffen / oder zemālen So nim / linden rom der an eim / kessel wachs oder ainem / rochloch oder wie der / rom ist das er lind vnd / gutt sy vnd clain geriben". Codex Germanicus 1. 1454-1463. Hamburg, Staats-und Universitätsbibliothek, fol. 73r. Transcription in Heiles, 2018, Die Farb- und Tintenrezepte des Cod. germ.1, p. 13-61.

'De coloribus et artibus Romanorum' liber III. In: Merrifield. 1849. Original Treatises, Dating from the XIIth to the XVIIIth Centuries

Notes on the Material Aspects (Metal Point): p. 25–35 and Reiche et al. 2001. Non-Destructive Investigation of Dürer’s Silver Point Drawings by SyXRF’.

This is the revised translation of an article first published under the title “La construction d’une image: Philippe le Bon et le noir”, in Se vêtir à la cour en Europe (1400-1815), Paresys Isabelle, Coquery Natacha (éditeurs), Collection “Histoire et Littérature de l'Europe du Nord-Ouest” n°48, Irhis, Ceges, Crcv, Université de Lille 3, Lille, 2012. Thanks to Luke O'Shaughnessy for his review.

Taylor, Lex. The Book. Publisher, year. location.

Pastoureau, Michel, Une histoire symbolique du Moyen Age occidental (Paris, Seuil, 2004), p. 49-64.

[12 Pegolotti, La pratica, 239; Zwick, “Bayonese Cogs.”

“Smith coal is nothing else than that of the blacksmith or brewer's coal; and grind it with clean rainwater; that one must temper with fairly short gum water and is then reasonably fluid to use in several ways, as seen here.” Boogert. 1692. Klaer lightende Spiegel der Verfkonst, Bibliothèque Méjanes in Aix-en-Provence, MS 1389 (1228): np.

[*] "Peach pit black. If you want to have a very delicate and lovely black. So take peach kernels put them in a new pot and put a fitting lid on them the lid should be sealed so that no steam comes out otherwise the kernels would become completely ash. Bring the pot to a potter who is going to a kiln so that he adds it to the other pottery in the oven. When he finished burning so take the pot and open it, then the stones are coal black. These pound in a mortar very small and grind long and well on a stone until they are no longer rough. Then temper it with which binder you want so you have a nice good black". Boltz von Ruffach, 1549, Illuminier Buoch, p. xcvij-xciii.

The mode of making the best black printing ink: Make a large lantern, two feet and a half broad on each side, and ten or twelve feet in height, and cover it with cotton paper or parchment, for one is as good as the other, and let there be a door at the foot of it, and put into it a tripod, and on the tripod a pan, and on the pan two pounds of Greek pitch. Set the pitch on fire, then shut the door ; take care that the lantern is air-tight, and let the pitch burn until it is entirely consumed, when the smoke from it will affix itself to the interior of the lantern like soot ; then take out the earthen pan and the tripod, shut the door, and with a rod beat the outside of the lantern, when the black will fall to the bottom, leave it to settle there ; then take it out and preserve it for use. But if you wish to clean the lantern more perfectly, tie some hen's feathers to a rod, and sweep the inside of the lantern with these, and add the black which you thus sweep off to the other black."

Marciana Manuscript, 1503-1527. Bibliotheka Marciana di Venecia. MSS Manoscritto It.III. 10. In Merrifield. 1849. Original Treatises Dating from the XIIth, Vol. 2: p. 618, 619.

"Types of black and shadow colours: [...] spruce resin black. [...] Of these I use and [consider] suitable, burnt spruce resin black, ..."

Cooper the Younger. 1634. In De Mayerne Manuscript, MS 2052 BL, fol. 79v. https://www.bl.uk/manuscripts/Viewer.aspx?ref=sloane_ms_2052_f079v Berger translates Pinatrj as Fichtenharzschwarz, spruce resin black, which is why this recipe appears here. Berger. 1901. Beiträge Zur Entwicklungs-Geschichte Der Maltechnik: p. 243, 245 https://digitalesammlungen.uni-weimar.de/viewer/object/PPN626184924/6/.

Peacham. 1634. The Gentlemans Exercise: p. 71-72.

“The best of all blacks, which can be spread the best and with which one can even glaze, is ivory black, or that prepared from the foot bones of sheep. These, in pieces, are put in a crucible, which is well covered with a brick and the seams tightly sealed so that no air can penetrate, and put the whole thing on a strong fire, not longer than an hour, (otherwise the bones will bleach) and thus the mass is burned to a perfect black.” This quote refers to the preparation of sheep bone black for oil paint, but since the preparation method is the same for pigments for watercolors it is included here. In: Mayerne. 1620-46. Mayerne Manuscript, London, British Library, MS Sloane 2052: folio 93r. http://www.bl.uk/manuscripts/Viewer.aspx?ref=sloane_ms_2052_f93r (transl. in Fels, Donald C., Lost Secrets of Flemish Painting: Including the First Complete English Translation of the De Mayerne Manuscript, B.M. Sloane 2052. Rev. ed. Floyd (VA): Alchemist, ed. 2010.

Pastoreau, Black, 102.

Sherry R Arnstein devised the ‘ladder of participation’ that suggests there are eight levels of citizen participation, from ‘manipulation’ at the bottom of the ladder to ‘citizen control’ at the top. Arnstein, “A Ladder,” 216–224.

Roetsieders

Master dyers that dyed with several different types of mordant dye, but predominantly reds with madder, kermes, and/or cochineal.

Roetsieders

Master dyers that dyed with several different types of mordant dye, but predominantly reds with madder, kermes, and/or cochineal.

Roetsieders

Master dyers that dyed with several different types of mordant dye, but predominantly reds with madder, kermes, and/or cochineal.

Staelmeesteren, or Wardens of Drapery

When cloth wardens were not able to cope with all the controlling stages of cloth manufacture, special control syndics were appointed annually to ensure that the dyeing was followed according to the specifications of the city drapery ordinances. These syndics of the Drapers guild, meaning sampling-masters, were responsible for approving the cloth qualities and sending them to the dyers. They also marked the blue dyed cloths by hammering slugs of lead after the cloth was dyed and finally sending them to the next dyer.

In the Dutch language the common proverb ‘De lakens uitdelen’ which literally translates as ‘to hand out the broadcloth’ colloquially means, 'The one who decides what shall happen', and comes directly from the Burgundian Low Countries broadcloth industry, referring to the power of the Staelmeesteren. (Cf, “staelmeester” in Verwijs and Verdam, Midderlnederlandsch Woordenboek, consulted online at https://gtb.ivdnt.org/iWDB/search?actie=article&wdb=MNW&id=54528&lemmodern=staalmeester&domein=0&conc=true, last accessed on 22 April 2021.)

Staelmeesteren, or Wardens of Drapery

The following section draws on field notes by Jenny Boulboullé, to keep the vivid tone of the onsite observations, we decided to maintain first person descriptions in workshop observartions: ‘I’ refers then to Boulboullé, and ‘we’ to Boulboullé, Bul and/or Ortega Saez.

Pastoreau, Black, 102.

[1] Peacham, 1634, The Gentlemans Exercise, p. 65.

[1] Recipe for “Noir de Flandres”, manuscript, London, Royal Society Archives, ClP/3i/34. First mentioned in Keller, “Scarlet Letters: Sir Theodore de Mayerne and the Early Stuart Color World in the Royal Society,” 118.

[1] “Grey color. Take a lot of good rubric and good ink, put them in a horn and let it stand for a night.” Hs.1028/1959 8°. end of fifteenth century - beginning sixteenth century. Stadtbibliothek Trier: fol. 28r. In: Braekman. 1997. Warenkennis, Kleurbereidingen Voor Miniaturisten En Vakkennis Voor Ambachtslui (15de E.): p. 140, rec. 50.

[1] “To prepare black kupferlot from kupferlot. Take one lot of pure Hammerschlag (residual iron particles after forging), and one lot of kupfferäschen (copper ash, pulverized black copper (II) oxide, crocus veneris), two lot of Schmelzglas (ground glass). Grind it all together, until it has no sandy smoke [?], but you should grind it on a copper plate, temper it with gum water, with this you can shade all light colors, but especially white color." In: Benzinger. After 1549. Illuminier Buch Künstlich Alle Farben Zumachen, handwritten copy of Boltz von Ruffach. 1549. Illuminier Buoch), GNM Nürnberg, Ms 32075: fol. 34r. http://digilib.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/digitallibrary/jquery/digilib.html?fn=/experimental/ARB/ARB_PRIMARY_SOURCES/ARB_manuscripts/MS_580/pageimg.

[1] REFERENCE TO E. HERMENS contribution. Mariani manuscript, Leiden University Library, Voss. Germ. Gall. 15, Della Miniatura di Valerio Mariani…., fol. 13r-v. E. Hermens is preparing a fully annotated edition of this manuscript.

[1] Broecke. 2015. Cennino Cennini’s Il libro dell’arte: A New English Translation and Commentary with Italian Transcription: Chapter 34, p. 55-56.

[1] Peacham, 1634, The Gentlemans Exercise, p. 65.

[1] Haydocke. 1598. A Tracte Containing The Artes […] Translation of Giovanni Paolo Lomazzo’s Trattato Del Arte Della Pittura, Scultura Ed Architettura, 1584: p. 99. http://archive.org/details/tractecontaining00loma.

[1] "Black from Luik/Liège. You can also make good black coal if you grind it well with clean water / and process it with clean gum water. This is very good black for painting woolen fabrics and is also called blacksmith-coal black." Anonymous. 1600-1650. Schoone consten ende secreten, Rome, Bibliotheca Apostolica Vaticana, Ms. Lat. 7279: fol. 24v, 25r. https://digi.vatlib.it/view/MSS_Vat.lat.7279, last accessed 9 November 2020; here cited after Braekman. 1994. Antwerpse ‘consten ende secreten’ voor verlichters en ‘afsetters’ van gedrukte prenten: p. 116.

[1] "This black is made from booklets which contained beaten gold or silver. One should ignite these books with a candle, and let it burn. If they are completely burnt, one should let them fall into a clean bowl with water. Afterwards grind it and let it dry on chalk", Anonymous. 1600-1650. Schoone consten ende secreten, Rome, Bibliotheca Apostolica Vaticana, Ms. Lat. 7279: fol. 24r, 24v. See https://digi.vatlib.it/view/MSS_Vat.lat.7279; here cited after Braekman. 1994. Antwerpse ‘consten ende secreten’ voor verlichters en ‘afsetters’ van gedrukte prenten: p. 116.

[1] Cennini. c. 1400. in, Merrifield. 1844. A Treatise on Painting. Written by Cennino Cennini in 1434: p. 21. A more recent translation is published by Broecke, Cennino Cennini’s Il libro dell’arte: A New English Translation and Commentary with Italian Transcription: Chapter 37, p. 60.

[1] Peacham, 1634, The Gentlemans Exercise, p. 65.

[1] Cennini. c. 1400. In: Broecke, Cennino Cennini’s Il libro dell’arte: A New English Translation and Commentary with Italian Transcription, 28-29 (Chapter 7); Merrifield. 1844. A Treatise on Painting. Written bu Cennino Cennini in 1434: Chapt. 7, p. 5

[1] Less probable, the miniature might also show Wauquelins scribe, Jacotin du Bois, while writing the first and second volume of the Chroniques, copying Wauquelins translation. In: Chroniques de Hainaut, vol. 1, Ms 9242, fol. 2r. https://uurl.kbr.be/1310113.

[1] Peacham, 1634, The Gentlemans Exercise, p. 65.

[1] See especially Jolivet’s and Ortega Saez and Cattersell’s chapters in this book.

[1] Joosten. 2004. Technology of Early Historical Iron Production in the Netherlands. Dissertation: p. 133.

[1] Liber illuministarum. 1450/1500-1512. Munich, Staatsbibliothek, MS. Germ. 821: I, 2v, 143r. In: Bartl et al. 2005. Der "Liber illuministarum" aus Kloster Tegernsee: 420-421 [1332, 1333].

[1] “Item Make a big light from tallow in a pan and light it and split a stick and put incense in between and hold it under a basin which is put over it and burn the incense in the light, so soot will settle on the basin, brush it off with a feather. Take resin from Arabia (gum Arabic) and put it in water that it dissolves and then mix it with it, it becomes a beautiful, wonderful color with which you can color whatever you want.” Hs 181503. 1451-1500. Nuremberg, Germanisches National Museum, Hs 181503: fol. 1r.

[1] Ortega, De technologie van het zwartverven, 57-65.

[1] Ekstrand, Some Early Silk Stockings, 178.

[1] Chylek, P. et al. 2015. ‘Soot’: p. 86–91.

[1] Rosetti, G. 1540, see also the facsimile, modern edition and English translation by Edelstein, Borghetty and Rosetti. 1969.

[1] De Arte Illuminandi, National Library Napoli, HS 1II.E.27. 1350-1400. In: Brunello. 1992. De Arte Illuminandi: p. 46-47.

[1] Rosetti, G. 1540, see also the facsimile, modern edition and English translation by Edelstein, Borghetty and Rosetti. 1969.

[1] Calmette, Joseph, Les grands ducs de Bourgogne (Paris, Albin Michel, 1949), p. 312, Bourassin, Emmanuel, Philippe le Bon, le grand lion des Flandres (Paris , Tallandier, 1983), p. 34.

[1] See also the initiative Farm of the World at http://farmoftheworld.nl, last accessed on 29 April 2020.

[1] Ghent University Library, ms. 2466.

[1] The Tallow Chandlers’ Company, https://www.tallowchandlers.org/about-us/our-history, last visited 16 Dec. 2020.

[1] Pastoreau, Black, 102.

[1] Brulez, “Bruges and Antwerp”; Dumolyn and Leloup, “The Zwin Estuary”; Munro, “Bruges and the Abortive Staple”; Puttevils, Merchants, 3–17; Van der Wee, “Trade”; Van Houtte, “The Rise and Decline.”

[1] Merrifield. 1844. A Treatise on Painting. Written by Cennino Cennini: p. 22. See also Broecke. 2015. Cennino Cennini’s Il libro dell’arte: p. 60-61. https://books.google.nl/books?id=O5VkAAAAcAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false.

[1] Rosetti, G. 1540, see also the facsimile, modern edition and English translation by Edelstein, Borghetty and Rosetti. 1969

[1] “Item If thou like to temper a black paint for designing or painting. Take soft soot that grows on a cauldron or smoke hole [chimney], or other soot that is soft and good, and grind it.” Codex Germanicus 1. 1454-1463. Hamburg, Staats-und Universitätsbibliothek, Cod. Germ. 1: fol. 73r. Transcription in: Heiles. 2018. Die Farb- und Tintenrezepte des Cod. germ. 1: p. 13-61.

[1] Dodoens, Stirpium, 349.

[1] Peacham, 1634, The Gentlemans Exercise, p. 65.

[1] E.g., Chastellain and Buchon, Chronique des ducs de Bourgogne, ch. CCXXXVII; Huizinga and Lem, Herfsttij der Middeleeuwen, 67-68; Pastoureau, Black, 102, Van der Loo, De Bourgondiers, 221.

[1] Hofenk de Graaff, “Dyeing Black in 17th-century Holland,” 313–323.

[1] Peacham, 1634, The Gentlemans Exercise, p. 65.

[2] For Re-invention, see David Edgerton, The Shock of the Old: Technology and Global History since 1900, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2007; Benjamin B. Olshin, Lost Knowledge: The Concept of Vanished Technologies and Other Human Histories, Leiden and Boston, Brill, 2019.

[2] See Conrads, “Het Theatre.” 315–317. On Desprez, see Paresys, “Images de l’autre vêtu,” 25–56.

[2] The first workshop took place from 15–18 January 2019; the second workshop with PhD and graduate students was part of the Dutch Graduate School Onderzoeksschool Kunstgeschiedenis in context of the Materials & Materialiy in Art History Course, 14 March 2019. The Artechne team also partnered up with conservators of the Heritage Department of the University of Antwerp who organized the one-week ROOHTS Summer School on Burgundian Black at Antwerp, Belgium, 1–5 July 2019.

[2] Frankopan, The Silk Roads, 136–263.

[2] Jolivet, “Pour soi vêtir honnêtement à la cour de monseigneur le duc de Bourgogne”.

[2] De Nave and Imhof, Botany in the Low Countries, 40–41; Swan, “Illustrated Natural History,” 186.

[2] Quoted in Sturtewagen, “Respectably Dressed”, 170, based on Sophie Jolivet’s work.

[2] Another technique to achieve proper dispersion is kneading a soot-binder dough, which can take up to one hour. This is the historic production method for middle- and far Eastern soot-based inks. Reissland and Hoesel. 2019. Manuscripts from Yemen 1786-1937: Analysis of glittering particles and ink composition: p. 7.

[2] "Burgundian Black" Summerschool ROOTS: Research on the Origins Of Historical Techniques, University of Antwerp, 1-5 July 2019.

[2] Hofenk de Graaff, “Dyeing Black in 17th-century Holland,” 320. On historical dye technologies and the use of mordants, see also Natalia Ortega Saez elsewhere in this volume.

[2] Reidsma et al. 2016. Charred Bone: p. 282 – 292.

[2] De Arte Illuminandi, National Library Napoli, HS 1II.E.27. 1350-1400. In: Brunello. 1992. De Arte Illuminandi: p. 46, 47

[2] Liber illuministarum. 1450/1500-1512. Munich, Staatsbibliothek, MS. Germ. 821: fol. 28r, 28v, 143r. In: Bartl et al. 2005. Der "Liber illuministarum" aus Kloster Tegernsee: p. 93, 267.

[2] Boogert. 1692. Klaer lightende Spiegel der Verfkonst, Bibliothèque Méjanes in Aix-en-Provence, MS 1389 (1228): Without page number.

[2] Jolivet, La construction d’une image.

[2] Veen. 1650-1687. De Wetenschap en[de] Manieren: Without page.

[2] Liber illuministarum. 1450/1500-1512. Munich, Staatsbibliothek, MS. Germ. 821: fol. 28r, 28v, 143r. In: Bartl et al. 2005. Der "Liber illuministarum" aus Kloster Tegernsee: p. 93, 267.

[2] For a reconstruction of medieval tallow lights, see tutorial: Light into the darkness – making tallow for lights, https://wh1350.at/en/tutorials-en-all/light-into-the-darkness-making-tallow-for-lights/

[2] Thijs, De Technische Organisatie van de Antwerpse Textielbedrijven, 478.

[2] Büll. 1977. Das Große Buch Vom Wachs. Band 1: p. 157ff.

[2] Scholz. 2001. Monumental Stained Glass in Southern Germany in the Age of Dürer: p. 17.

[2] Büll. 1977. Das Große Buch Vom Wachs. Band 1: p. 157ff.

[2] M. de Lanoy has been identified as Pierre de Lanoy, a Walloon dyer in Southwark, Keller, “Scarlet Letters: Sir Theodore de Mayerne and the Early Stuart Color World in the Royal Society,” 118. Pierre/Peter de Lanoy is likely the later MP Peter de Lannoy (1607 – 1675), a Southwark Huguenot and dyer like his father and grandfather, who was elected into parliament in 1656, probably also an importer of colorants, Vivienne Larminie, “Peter de Lannoy: A Southwark Huguenot in Parliament,” The Huguenot Society (blog), June 17, 2020, https://www.huguenotsociety.org.uk/blog/peter-de-lannoy-a-southwark-huguenot-in-parliament, last accessed on 22 February 2021.

[3] Cardon, Natural Dyes, 20–30, 39–42, 108–121, 169–177, 191–195, 274–289, 354–377, 410–418, 422–427, 610–619, and 635–666.

[3] On Theodore de Mayerne, see e.g., Trevor-Roper, Europe’s Physician: The Various Life of Sir Theodore de Mayerne; Boulboullé, “Drawn up by a Learned Physician from the Mouths of Artisans: The Mayerne Manuscript Revisited”; Nance, Turquet de Mayerne as Baroque Physician: The Art of Medical Portraiture.

[3] "Black", hands-on workshop for master students painting conservation as part of the course Art Technological Source Research, Conservation & Restoration Department, University of Amsterdam, 20 February 2020.

[3] For the origins of black as fashion, and the importance and influence of the Spanish protocol of black, see Currie, Fashion and Masculinity, 105-106; Harvey, Men in Black, 41-42, 63-64 and 79-81; and Pastoreau, Black, 100-103.

[3] Lewis. 1763. Commerzium Philosophico-Technicum: p. 341-343.

[3] All dye analysis, unless mentioned otherwise, was carried out using HPLC or HPLC-MS by Art Ness Proaño Gaibor, for which we are extremely thankful.

[3] On the archival research and the re-enactment workshops see the contributions of […] elsewhere in this volume.

[3] See e.g., Jolivet’s essay in this volume; Jolivet, “Dress and Illuminated Manuscripts at the Burgundian Court: Complementary Sources and Fashions (1430-1455)”; Borchert, “Imaging History – Imagining History”; Van Buren-Hagiopan, “Dress and costume”; Van Buren, “Les portraits de Wauquelin et son rôle d’iconographe : l’apport du costume”; Scott, “The Role of Dress in the Image of Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy”; Docquier, “Le collier de l’ordre de la Toison d’or et ses representations dans la peinture Primitifs flamands (XVe et première moité du XVIe siècle),” esp. 147-156.

[3] “To make ink in need. Chapter four. Take a wax candle, light it and hold it against a bowl or a dish until soot or the black from the soot sticks to it. Then pour a little warm gum water into it and temper it so it's ink.” In: Andriessen. 1552. Viervoudich Tractaet Boeck: fol. 40. https://books.google.nl/books?id=wZNiAAAAcAAJ&printsec=frontcover&hl=de#v=onepage&q&f=false.

[3] Anonymous. 1573. A Very Proper Treatise: f. 6r https://archive.org/details/verypropertreati00lond/page/n4/mode/1up.

[3] Egmond, “The Garden of Nature,” 26–30.

[3] Spear. 2010. A Century of Pigment Prices: Seventeenth Century Italy: p. 286, Table A-1, Blacks.

[3] “So grind coal with water”, Hs.1028/1959 8°. end of fifteenth century - beginning of sixteenth century, Stadtbibliothek Trier: fol. 27r. In: Braekman. 1997. Warenkennis, Kleurbereidingen Voor Miniaturisten En Vakkennis Voor Ambachtslui (15de E.): 138, rec. 37.

[3] Lewis. 1763. Commerzium Philosophico-Technicum: p. 49.

[3] Black, Knitting. 10-16.

[3] On the legendary taste for black dress of the third Duke of Burgundy, Philip the Good (1396-1477), see the essay by Jolivet elsewhere in this volume.

[3] Anonymous. 1573. A Very Proper Treatise: f. 6r https://archive.org/details/verypropertreati00lond/page/n4/mode/1up.

[3] Spear. 2010. A Century of Pigment Prices: Seventeenth Century Italy: p. 286, Table A-1, Blacks.

[3] Conrads, “Het Theatre,” 316.

[3] Jugie, Sophie “Les portraits des ducs de Bourgogne”, in Images et représentations princières et nobiliaires dans les Pays-Bas Bourguignons et quelques régions voisines (XIVe-XVIes.), Rencontres de Nivelles-Bruxelles (26-29 septembre 1996), publications du centre européen d’études bourguignonnes, n°37, 1997, p. 49-86.

[4] See the essays in part III of this volume for a discussion of extant recipe literature on black dyeing.

[4] Le Begue. 1431. BnF MS Latin 6741: fol. 6v, table of synonyms.

[4] Kirby, “Painting,” 1–4, Sanz, Comèrcio, 1: 545–601.

[4] Waterschoot, “Leven en betekenis van Lucas d’Heere,” 16–22. On Frans Floris, see Wouk, Frans Floris.

[4] Chylek et al. 2015. Soot: p. 57.

[4] The size of half an egg, Liber illuministarum (1450 / 1500-1512): fol. 28r and 143r. In: Bartl et al. 2005. Der "Liber illuministarum" aus Kloster Tegernsee: p. 92-93, 266-267.

[4] Le Begue. 1431. BnF MS Latin 6741: fol. 6v, table of synonyms.

[4] De Nave and Imhof, Botany in the Low Countries, 19–21.

[4] See Stuetzel. 2013: p. 32.

[4] Chylek et al. 2015. Soot: p. 57.

[4] De Nie, De ontwikkeling der Noord-Nederlandsche textielververij, 184-219.

[4] Nash. 2010. The Supply, Aquisition, Cost and Employment of Painters’ Materials at the Burgundian Court, c. 1375-1419: p. 101-124 , tab.1 and tab.2; 134-136, tab. 4.

[4] Galloway. 1882. A history of coal mining in Great Britain: p. 11ff.

[4] On miniature art and ducal patronage, see e.g., Borchert, “Imaging History – Imagining History”; Vanwijnsberghe, “De ‘Vlaamse’ miniatuur - route naar een verfijnde kaart van een transregionale productie,” 23. For a critical take on the idea that Burgundian miniature art was primarily been shaped by ducal patronage, see Vanwijsberghe, “Aan het Hof en in de Stad: de miniatuur in de Bourgondische Nederlanden in de 15e eeuw,” 263-271.

[4] On the trade in colorants in the Burgundian–Habsburg Low Countries, see the essay by Jo Kirby elsewhere in this volume.

[4] See Stuetzel. 2013: p. 32.

[4] Huizinga, Johan, and Lem, Anton (van der), Herfsttij der Middeleeuwen: studie over levens- en gedachtenvormen der veertiende en vijftiende eeuw in Frankrijk en de Nederlanden, 2018 (1919, 1st ed. H.D. Tjeenk Willink, Haarlem), 68-69.

[4] Black, Knitting. 25-30.

[4] Munro, “The Anti-Red Shift”, 55.

[5] “Item to make soot-black. Take a thick wick from coarse ropes like a swan feather, and pinch resin around it like a candle and put it under a basin that has been very neatly scrubbed, overturned on 3 half bricks; and if you want to have the whole thing [vole = complete?], you can place iiij pieces of resin on a jug or a latel [?] pan around the candle and let it fully burn, and then sweep it off the basin and grind it with water as long as Rubrijk. And put it on chalk and let it dry and put it in a box.” In: Kölner Musterbuch. 1490. Köln, Historisches Archiv der Stadt, Best. 7010 (Wallraf) 293: fol. 7r.

[5] “Vous aurez un noir parfaict & durable”, first page (recto) of the bifolio, recipe for “Noir de Flandres,” manuscript, London, Royal Society Archives, ClP/3i/34.

[5] For the continued use of colour in this period, both in festive occasions as well as worn under black over-garments, see Rublak, “Renaissance Dress”, 9; Currie, Fashion and Masculinity, Chapters 6 and 7; and Chiara Buss, “Half-Tints”, 175. See examples in Hohti, “Dress, Dissemination and Innovation”, p. 153.

[5] “Vous aurez un noir parfaict & durable”, first page (recto) of the bifolio, recipe for “Noir de Flandres,” manuscript, London, Royal Society Archives, ClP/3i/34.

[5] See, for example, Majid et al., “Differential Coding of Perception.”

[5] Louis, Geschiedenis van de Plantkunde, 421and 437.

[5] See e.g., Richard, “Le contexte: L'Etat bourguignon”; Boulton and Veenstra, The Ideology of Burgundy, viv; Wrisley, “Burgundian Ideologies and Jehan Wauquelin's Prose Translations,” 134; Borchert, “Imaging history – Imagining history,” 4.

[5] Van Driessche, “Het mausoleum,” 125–138. On funeral sculpture in the Low Countries in this period, see Kavaler, “Being the Count of Nassau,” 12–51.

[5] Jolivet, Sophie, Pour soi vêtir honnêtement à la cour de monseigneur le duc : costume et dispositif vestimentaire à la cour de Philippe le Bon, de 1430 à 1455. Sciences de l'Homme et Société. Université de Bourgogne, 2003. Français. ⟨tel-00392310⟩

[5] “Vous aurez un noir parfaict & durable”, first page (recto) of the bifolio, recipe for “Noir de Flandres,” manuscript, London, Royal Society Archives, ClP/3i/34.

[5] Wilson, Carr and Hacke, “Production and Validation.”

[5] Partridge, A Practical treatise on dyeing, 138-144.

[5] Karel, “Craft Secrecy,” 341–348.

[5] “With regard to Indian ink one does not need to do anything else, than to grind it with some clean rainwater on a stone, so that enough will come off to be used; or put a piece of it in some clean rainwater to melt with a little gum, also without gum; and then one can use it easily and in different ways as can be seen here.” Boogert. 1692. Klaer lightende Spiegel der Verfkonst, Bibliothèque Méjanes in Aix-en-Provence, MS 1389 (1228): Without page number.

[5] “Vous aurez un noir parfaict & durable”, first page (recto) of the bifolio, recipe for “Noir de Flandres,” manuscript, London, Royal Society Archives, ClP/3i/34.

[5] Lacroix, Le Moyen Age. 367-381.

[5] “Vous aurez un noir parfaict & durable”, first page (recto) of the bifolio, recipe for “Noir de Flandres,” manuscript, London, Royal Society Archives, ClP/3i/34.

[6] Galloway. 1882. A history of coal mining in Great Britain: p. 24 cites Howes 1631 without providing a reference.

[6] MS Sloane 2052, fol. 93r, marginal note in red ink: “La corne de cerf/ bruslée, quand/ vous la broyés avec eau sur/ la pierre devient/ brune, comme/ une terre ou/ ocre. Laquelle/ si vous meslee/ avec huyle sur/ la palette, il/ se faict un noir comme jaget/ tresbeau, com-/me j’ay veu, q/ a besoing des/ additions ordi-/naires pour/ seicher. Ce q’l/ ne faict jamais/ de soymesme.” see: http://www.bl.uk/manuscripts/Viewer.aspx?ref=sloane_ms_2052_f093r, last accessed 28 April 2020. 

[6] De Nave and Imhof, Botany in the Low Countries, 106; Voet, The Plantin Press, vol. 2, 833–834.

[6] Du Mortier, “Costume & Fashion,” 40.

[6] Reissland and Smulders. 2020. Bistre / Glanzruss: GC-MS analysis of components, Research Report No. 2020-070.

[6] Erasmus, Een goddelijk festijn.

[6] Jehan le Begue (1431), citing Eraclius 'De coloribus et artibus Romanorum' liber III. In: Merrifield. 1849. Original Treatises, Dating from the XIIth to the XVIIIth Centuries, Vol. 1: p. 248.

[6] Ricciardi and Beers. 2016. The Illuminators’ Palette: p. 35.

[6] A réveiller les morts : la mort au quotidien dans l’occident médiéval, sous la direction de Alexandre-Bidon Danièle et Treffort, Cécile (Lyon, PUL, 1993) ; Alexandre-Bidon, Danièle, La mort au Moyen-Age, XIII-XVe siècle (Paris, Hachette, 1998) ; Polini, Nadia, La mort du Prince, rituels funéraires de la Maison de Savoie (1343-1451), (Université de Lausanne, Lausanne, 1994) ; Beaune, Colette, “Mourir noblement à la fin du Moyen-Age”, in La mort au Moyen-Age, colloque de l’Association des historiens médiévistes français, Strasbourg, 1975, p. 125-143, Sommé, Monique, “Le cérémonial de la naissance et de la mort de l’enfant princier à la cour de Bourgogne au XVe siècle”, in Fêtes et cérémonies au XIVe et XVe siècles, publications du centre européen d’Etudes bourguignonnes, n°34, Neuchâtel, 1994, p. 87-103 ; Gaude-Ferragu, Murielle, D'or et de cendres. La mort et les funérailles des princes dans le royaume de France au Bas Moyen Âge, (Presses Universitaires du Septentrion, Villeneuve d'Ascq, 2005).

[6] Ricciardi and Beers. 2016. The Illuminators’ Palette: p. 35.

[6] The theocratic dictatorship of Savonarola lasted four years, 1494–98. For Savonarola and his advocation of black, see Williams, Story of Colour, 71; Pastoreau, Black, 105; and Strathern, Death in Florence.

[6] Vigne, Recherches. 37.

[6] Stauffer, “A Purchase List.”

[6] Onghena, “Heere, de oude, Jan, de,” 294–305.

[6] In 2020 a new museum opened at the Royal Library of Belgium (KBR) devoted to the history of the library of the Dukes of Burgundy, see https://www.kbr.be/en/museum/; on the history of its collection see https://www.kbr.be/en/history-of-kbrs-manuscript-collection/.

[6] "Coal black. Of charcoal one makes a blue or gray black / rub it well and let it dry on the chalk." Anonymous. 1600-1650. Schoone consten ende secreten, Rome, Bibliotheca Apostolica Vaticana, Ms. Lat. 7279: fol. 25r; see also Braekman. 1994. Antwerpse ‘consten ende secreten’ voor verlichters en ‘afsetters’ van gedrukte prenten: p. 117.

[7] Seiler-Baldinger, Textiles, A Classification of Techniques, 87.

[7] Pastoreau, Black, 125.

[7] Monteil, Corporations, 46

[7]

[7] Reissland and Hoesel. 2019. Manuscripts from Yemen - Analysis of Glittering Particles and Ink Composition. RCE Research report 2016–027a.

[7] Borchert, “Imaging history – Imagining history,” 4.

[7] On an introduction to the European tradition, see Blunt and Raphael, The Illustrated Herbal; on more in-depth discussions on this issue, see Givens, Reeds, and Touwaide, Visualizing Medieval Medicine and Natural History.

[7] Le Begue. 1431. BnF MS Latin 6741: fol. 4v, table of synonyms.

[7] le Begue. 1431. citing Eraclius 'De coloribus et artibus Romanorum' liber III. In: Merrifield. 1849. Original Treatises, Dating from the XIIth to the XVIIIth Centuries, Vol. 1: p. 138

[7] Pastoureau, Michel, Noir, Histoire d'une couleur (Paris, Seuil, 2008) ; Harvey, John, Des hommes en noir. Du costume masculin à travers les siècles (Paris, Abbeville, 1998) .(traduit de l'anglais, 1995)

[7] On Burgundian Mechelen, see Eichberger, Women.

[7] De Nie, De ontwikkeling der Noord-Nederlandsche textielververij; Thijs, Van “werkwinkel” tot “fabriek”; Hofenk De Graaff, Natural Dyestuffs, Origin, Chemical Composition; Jolivet, La construction d’une image; Ortega, Material analysis versus historical dye recipes.

[7] Massa, L’arte genovese, 119–120 and 211. The full list is oak galls, copperas, gum arabic, filings of rusty iron, madder, vinegar and soap: “galla, vitriola, goma, limagia rausìa, roza et acceto e sapone” (211). Nothing else could be added. If used, madder could have contributed a warmer shade to the black achieved.

[7] See Nash: p. 173-174, tab. 26 ‘Comparative prices for painters materials’.

[7] Kavaler, “Sixteenth-century Netherlandish Sculpture,” 14 and 17.

[8] On the position of artists in urban and courtly contexts, see, for example, Eichberger et al., The Artist between Court and City.

[8] The Melijn Archive consists of a number of trade letters and is located in two places: 1. the Fashion Museum of Antwerp, 2. the Municipal Archives of Wijnegem. The second part, at least the register synopsis, can be accessed online; http://www.heemkringwijnegem.be/melijn.php, last accessed 1June 2020. The part from the Fashion Museum can be consulted in the library of the museum. It includes a series of eleven documents that compile copies of the trade letters. The other documents are journals and commercial correspondence. The archive consists mainly of correspondence between Jan Michiel Melijn and commercial agents in England (London) concerning orders for woollen fabrics, which are to be delivered in a variety of price ranges, colours, and the enclosed sample.

[8] Ekstrand, Some Early Silk Stockings, 165-169.

[8] Also, other ink cultures searched for ways to preserve their ink. Middle Eastern ink was dried as cakes. The European alternative was to carry inks as powder that could be mixed with any liquid available, like beer, wine or water to create a writing ink.

[8] “Smith coal is nothing else than that of the blacksmith or brewer's coal; and grind it with clean rainwater; that one must temper with fairly short gum water and is then reasonably fluid to use in several ways, as seen here.” Boogert. 1692. Klaer lightende Spiegel der Verfkonst, Bibliothèque Méjanes in Aix-en-Provence, MS 1389 (1228): Without page number.

[8] See Williams, Story of Colour, 71; and Currie, Fashion and Masculinity, Chapter 5.

[8] On the woodblock collection of the Museum Plantin-Moretus, see Kockelbergh, “The Rich Collection of Woodblocks,” 109–118.

[8] le Begue. 1431. Paris, BnF, MS Latin 6741: fol. 4v.

[8] See Nash: p. 121, tab. 2 ‘Payments for painters’ materials in the Champmol accounts 1387-1404, Dijon’, 1.4.1399: wax candles.

[8] Chatenet, “Quelques aspects des funérailles nobiliaires,” 37–54; Stein, “Gifts of Mourning-Cloth,” 51–80.

[8] Watteeuw and Peckstadt, “KBR, Hs 9242: Een conservatie in functie van het ontstaan, gebruik en de beschadiging van het manuscript”, 138 fn. 1.

[8] Boltz von Ruffach. 1549. Illuminier Buoch: p. xlv-xlvi.

[8] On prohibition of the use of iron-tannate dyes, see de Poerck, La draperie, 189–190; Collection des keuren, 116–118; on brunette dyeing, see Collection des keuren, 87 and 90; on lighter weight textiles and changes in their production, see Collection des keuren, 90; Munro, “Spanish Merino Wools”; Soens, Stabel and Van de Walle, “An Urbanised Countryside”; Van der Wee, “Structural Changes.”

[8] Ricciardi and Beers. 2016. The Illuminators’ Palette: p. 35.

[8] Wetting and beating the fabric opens the scales on the outside of the wool fibres, they become entangled, and a felted layer forms on the outside of the fabric, closing openings in the weave. Since wool is a water-repellent material this makes the fabric more water-resistant.

[8] For the reign of Philip the Good, the main chroniclers close to the court were Enguerrand de Monstrelet, Chronique, éd. Douët-d'Arcq, 1857-1862 ; 6 v., Jean Le Fèvre de Saint-Rémy, Mémoires, éd. François Morand, 1876-1881, 2 vol., Matthieu d’Escouchy, Chronique, éd. Du Fresne de Beaucourt, 1863-1864, 3 vol., Jacques du Clerq, Mémoires, éd. Reiffenberg, 1835-1836, Georges Chastellain, Oeuvres, éd. Kervyn de Lettenhove, 1863-1866, 8 vol., Olivier de La Marche, Mémoires, éd. Beaune et d'Arbaumont, 1883-1888, 4 vol.

[9] Ortega, Black Dyed Wool in North Western Europe, 119-125.

[9] Ortega Saez e.a., “Material analysis versus historical dye recipes: Ingredients found in black dyed wool from five Belgian Archives (1650 – 1850),” 119-125.

[9] Le Begue. 1431. Archerius. De diversis coloribus (1398-1411). In: Merrifield. 1849. Original Treatises, Dating from the XIIth to the XVIIIth Centuries, Vol. 1: p. 300; and Recueil de recettes et secrets concernant l'art du mouleur, de l'artificier et du peintre. after 1579. Paris, BnF, MS fr. 640: fol. 58v, 59v, 63v.

[9] Krünitz. 1820. Oekonomisch-Technologische Encyklopädie, Vol. 128: p. 728-729.

[9] Borchert, “Imaging history – Imagining history,” 10 fn. 32; On shared and public reading cultures in the late Middle Ages see also Pleij, “Boeken dragen”; Vanwijnsberghe “Aan het hof en in de Stad: de miniatuur in de Bourgondische Nederlanden in de 15e eeuw,” 266.

[9] Krünitz. 1820. Oekonomisch-Technologische Encyklopädie, Vol. 128: p. 728-729.

[9] Hofenk de Graaff, “Geschiedenis van de Textieltechniek,” 28.

[9] For the use of black in mourning, mourning dress, and for the traditional associations of black with its many un-loving meanings, such as loss, desolation, grief, and dishonor, see Harvey, Men in Black, 40-53; Frick, Dressing Renaissance Florence, 174-75, and Currie, Fashion and Masculinity, 99.

[9] On historical printing ink, see Johns, “Ink,” 110; Stijnman, “Om bucke te prenten op papier,” 39–57.

[9] Vale, “A Burgundian Funeral Ceremony,” 920–938.

[9] Spufford, Power and Profit, 12–34 (this book gives a useful background to trade in Europe, primarily in the fourteenth century); Munro, “The Low Countries’ Export Trade.”

[9] Mollat M., Favreau R., Fawtier R., Comptes généraux de l’Etat bourguignon entre 1416 et 1420, Paris, 1976, vol. 1, introduction p. XLI et XLII

[9] Goeree. 1670. Verlichterie-Kunde: p. 3. http://hdl.handle.net/1874/188396.

[9] Braekman. 1997. Warenkennis, Kleurbereidingen Voor Miniaturisten En Vakkennis Voor Ambachtslui (15de E.): p. 138, rec. 35.

[9] Eichberger, Leben.

[9] Reissland, Black pigment essay crossrefence.

[10] Cayron & Steyaert, Made in Malines.

[10] Pegolotti, La pratica, 239–240.

[10] Pastoreau, Black, 100.

[10] Adam, “Living and Printing in Antwerp,” 83.

[10] Vale, “A Burgundian Funeral Ceremony.”

[10] Sophie Jolivet, Pour soi vêtir honnêtement, op. cit., p. 21-33

[10] De Nie, De ontwikkeling der Noord-Nederlandsche textielververij, 144.

[10] Hofenk de Graaff, The Colourful Past, 293.

[10] Jolivet, Pour soi vêtir, 125.

[10] Boulton and Veenstra, The Ideology of Burgundy, esp. Wrisley, “Burgundian Ideologies and Jehan Wauquelin's Prose Translations“ and Veenstra, “'Le prince qui se veult faire de nouvel roy': The Literature and Ideology of Burgundian Self-Determination“; Small, “Les Chroniques de Hainaut et les projets d'historiographie régionale en langue française à la cour de Bourgogne”; Morrison, “A Very Burgundian Hero: The Figure of Alexander the Great under the Rule of Philip the Good“; Hériché-Pradeau, “Girart de Roussillon : la stratégie hagiographique d’une compilation”; Cauchies, “Le prince, le pays et la chronique : aux surces d'un intérêt politique”; Dubois, “La scène de présentation des Chroniques de Hainaut. Idéologie et politique à la cour de Bourgogne”; Blondeau, “Jean Wauquelin et l’illustration de ses textes”; Van Hoorebeeck, “Bibliofielen en opdrachtgevers. Wie waren de klanten van de miniaturisten”; Cardon, “Boeken aan het hof,” 74; Vanwijnsberghe, “Aan het Hof en in de Stad: de miniatuur in de Bourgondische Nederlanden van de 15e eeuw,” 266-267.

[11] Amongst others, Le Begue. 1431. Paris, BnF, MS Latin 6741: fol. 4v, MS Sloane 6284. late sixteenth c. B.M. MS Sloane 6284. In: Harley. 1982/2001. Artists' Pigments c.1600-1835: p. 157 and Haydocke 1598. A Tracte […] translation of Giovanni Paolo Lomazzo's Trattato del arte della pittura, scultura ed architettura: 100.

[11] Harvey, Men in Black, 62. For the meaning of black as a virtuous colour, a symbol of humility and temperance, and of symbol of all Christian virtues at the Spanish court, see Pastoreau, Black, 103; and for other values of black, such as age or timelessness, Currie, Fashion and Masculinity, 99-102.

[11] “Pine-soot black is known to everyone.” Boltz von Ruffach. 1549. Illuminier Buoch: p. 98

[11] Bonenfant, Paul, Philippe le Bon, sa politique, son action (Louvain la Neuve, De Boeck, 1996), particularly “Les traits essentiels du règne de Philippe le Bon”, p. 3-18 and “Du meutre de montereau au traité de Troyes”, p. 105-336. Voir aussi Jean Favier, La guerre de cent ans (Paris, Fayard, 1980), p. 453.

[11] See essays on dyeing in part III of this volume.

[11] Melis, Aspetti, 15–16, 24, and 272–276. For information on the archive, see http://datini.archiviodistato.prato.it/ accessed 10 January 2020. See also Origo, The Merchant of Prato; Bruscoli, “Trade.”

[11] Numerous miniature portraits of Philip the Good are reproduced, e.g., in black and white in Stroo, De celebratie van de macht, and Cockshaw and Bergens-Patens, Les Chroniques de Hainaut, ou, Les ambitions d'un prince bourguignon; in colour in Boussmanne and Delcourt, Vlaamse Miniaturen, 1404-1482; Smeyers, Flemish Miniatures; Watteeuw et al., New Perspectives on Illumination; Kern and McKendrick, Illuminating the Renaissance; Bennett et al., Meesterlijke Middeleeuwen.

[11] See essays on dyeing in part III of this volume.

[11] On an important recent study on the reusing and recycling of woodblocks in the early modern period, see Moran, “Preserving the Cutting Edge,” 393–419.

[11] Kavaler, “Being the Count of Nassau,” 42.

[11] Jolivet, Pour soi vêtir, 479.

[11] De Nie, “De Ontwikkeling der Noord-Nederlandsche Textielververij,” 184–191.

[11] Kristeller, “Humanism.”

[11] Marciana Manuscript. 1503-1535. Biblioteca Marciana di Venezia, It.III. 10. In: Merrifield. 1849. Original Treatises, Dating from the XIIth to the XVIIIth Centuries, Vol. 2: p. 610, 618.

[11] Thijs, De Technische Organisatie van de Antwerpse Textielbedrijven, 440-447; De Textielnijverheid en het stedelijk leefmilieu te Antwerpen, 183-205; De Nie, De ontwikkeling der Noord-Nederlandsche textielververij, 140-143.

[12] The term was coined by André Leroi-Gourhan, L’homme et la matière, to reveal and describe the technical, social and cultural complexity of artefacts. On the complex production processes of manuscript manufacture, see e.g., Van der Stock, “Flemisch Illuminated Manuscripts: Assessing Archival Evidence”; On the materialities of book making, the role of writers, scribes, and rubricators, see e.g., Crécy et al., Jean Wauqelin de Mons à la cour de Bourgogne,3, esp. Parussa and Trachsler, “La scripta de Jacotin du Bois, un copiste dans l'atelier de Jehan Wauquelin” and Boulton, “Les rubriques de La Belle Hélène de Constantinople”.

[12] Voet, The Plantin Press, vol. 3, 1410–1411.

[12] Anonymous. 1596. A Very Proper Treatise Wherein Is Breefely Set Forth the Art of Limming: fol. 6v, 7r.

[12] Benjamin, “Theses,” 247.

[12] De Nie, De ontwikkeling der Noord-Nederlandsche textielververij, 142.

[12] Bartl et al. 2005. Der "Liber illuministarum" aus Kloster Tegernsee: p. 517.

[12] Another 'lampblack' was sold under the same name, but was produced by burning resin, not wood (see, soot of coniferous resins, noire de Paris).

[12] Quoted in Harvey, Men in Black , 71; and Currie, Fashion and Masculinity, 28.

[12] Huizinga, Johan, L'automne du Moyen-Age (1932, Paris, rééd Petite bibliothèque Payot, 1995), p.53

[12] Bartl et al. 2005. Der "Liber illuministarum" aus Kloster Tegernsee: p. 517.

[12] Taylor, Mourning Dress, 77–78; Vincent, Dressing the Elite, 61–71.

[12] See on reconstruction experiments of this overdyeing method, Ortega Saez, Black dyed wool in North Western Europe, ch. 5, and the essays by Natalia Ortega Saez, Jenny Boulboullé and Jo Kirby in this volume.

[12] Jolivet, Pour soi vêtir, 479.

[12] Anonymous. 1596. A Very Proper Treatise Wherein Is Breefely Set Forth the Art of Limming: fol. 6v, 7r.

[13] Riforma, e Prammatica (1638). By the late sixteenth century, black was also the most dominant colour for over-gowns and for the entire wardrobe of the Italian bourgeoisie and professionals, see Currie, Fashion and Masculinity, 100.

[13] Schandel, “Opdrachtscences aan het hof van de Bourgondische hertogen,” 66; Stroo, De celebratie van de macht, 22;

[13] On a brief introduction of printing matrices in printmaking, see Landau and Parshall, The Renaissance Print, 21–28. In the history of printing and typography, however, a printing matrix usually means the (copper) matrix for casting metal types, which will be discussed in the next section of this chapter.

[13] On the interest in early Netherlandish painting in the nineteenth century, see Chapuis, “Early Netherlandish Painting.”

[13] Stein, “Gifts of Mourning-Cloth.”

[13] Du Mortier, “Costume & Fashion,” 161.

[13] Hofenk de Graaff, Geschiedenis, 55-72.

[13] According to Krünitz, Sweden joint in the lampblack trade as late as 1651. Krünitz. 1820. Oekonomisch-Technologische Encyklopädie, Vol. 128: p. 738.

[13] Mus, “De Brugse compagnie Despars”; Brulez, De firma della Faille.

[13] https://artechne.wp.hum.uu.nl/burgundian-black/

[13] Calmette, Joseph, Les grands ducs de Bourgogne (Paris, Albin Michel, 1949), p. 312 ; Schnerb, Bertrand, Jean Sans Peur, le prince meurtrier (Paris, Payot, 2005); chapitre 41 : “Le deuil et la vengeance”, p. 699-710

[13] According to Krünitz, Sweden joint in the lampblack trade as late as 1651. Krünitz. 1820. Oekonomisch-Technologische Encyklopädie, Vol. 128: p. 738.

[14] Sophie Jolivet, “La construction d’une image: Philippe le Bon et le noir (1419-1467),” Apparence(s) 6 (2015), consulted 16.11.2019, https://journals.openedition.org/apparences/1307.

[14] Lagardère, Mûrier et culture, 105-109.

[14] Pastoureau, Michel, Noir, Histoire d'une couleur (Paris, Seuil, 2008), p. 101.

[14] Another method can be found in Piemontese, who advises to let the pits and shells directly burn on a coal fire but stop the process in time, which is rather an incomplete burning. "laetse opte colen verbranden: ende alsse wel root zyn / ende wel gheloeyende / so neemptse vanden viere / ende aldus te colen verbrandt / sult ghyse in een panne bewaren." Piemontese. 1561. De secreten van den eerweerdighen heere Alexis Piemontois: fol. 111r.

[14] Asaert, Documenten.

[14] The Museum Project, as a process leading to the eventual realisation of Museum Hof van Busleyden, was described in various publications. See Bosmans and De Nijn, “Het Mechelse museumtraject.”

[14] Borchert, “Imaging history – Imagining history,” 11.

[14] The following people participated in the workshop: Claudy Jongstra (textile artist), Annette Hoeben (natural plant dyer, Studio Claudy Jongstra), Anna Reggio (architect, Studio Claudy Jongstra) Natalia Ortega-Saez (University Antwerpen), Jo Kirby Atkinson (senior scientist, formerly of the Scientific Department, National Gallery, London), Ana Serrano (RCE), Art Proaño-Gaibor (RCE), Suzan Meijer (textile conservator RMA), Jenny Boulboullé, Sven Dupré (Uva & UU, ERC Artechne) Paula Hohti (U Aalto, PI ERC Re-fashioning the Renaissance), Suzanne Bul* (UvA, research master student technical art history), Jessie Chen* (UU, PhD candidate), Erma Hermens (UvA & RMA), Chrystel Brandenburgh (Brandenburgh Textile Archeology), Samuel Mareel, (Museum Hof van Busleyden). On the Burgundian Black Collaboratory, see also the contributions by Claudy Jongstra, Art Gaibor Proaño, and Jenny Boulboullé elsewhere in this volume.

[14] Griffiths, The Print Before Photography, 44.

[14] MS Ashmole 1494, today in the collections of the Bodleian Library, Oxford. Repeated reworkings of this recipe produced a beautiful black; see essays in Part III in this volume.

[14] For the impact of material properties and the quality of the colour and colorant on the value of textiles and dress, see Pastoreau, Black, 98-99, and Currie, Fashion and Masculinity, 99-100. Sometimes the colour was the largest single component of the total production costs. For Italy, see Frick, Dressing Renaissance Florence, 101-103; and for the Low Countries, Sturtewagen, ‘Respectably Dressed’, 154-156.

[15] A study group called ‘Research On the Origin of Historical Techniques’, under the acronym ROOHTS, was established in 2018. The aims of ROOHTS were to acquire and further disseminate the theoretical knowledge and practical knowhow related to historical art technical sources and sources by heritage education and a broad audience. On the exhibition, see also the contributions by Claudy Jongstra and Samuel Mareel & Marijke Wienen elsewhere in this volume.

[15] Pastoreau, Black, 90.

[15] Du Mortier, “Costume & Fashion,” 161.

[15] Voet, The Golden Compasses, vol. 2, 221–222.

[15] Wienen, “Het museum als ontmoetingsplek.”

[15] Hofenk de Graaff, Geschiedenis, 140-143.

[15] Schandel, “Opdrachtscenes aan het hof van de Bourgondische Hertogen,” 66.

[15] Pastoureau, Black, 71 and 100–103.

[15] Asaert, Documenten, no. 32, p. 24; no. 144, p. 85; no. 201, pp. 123–126. A bale, a package of goods wrapped in canvas or other cloth, had no fixed size.

[15] Archives départementales de la Côte-d'Or, B. 1508, f° 126: “pour une livrée que mon dit seigneur de Bourgogne fist naguaires quant il dona a disner en son hostel d'Artois a Paris aux ambassadeurs du Roy d'Angleterre”.

[15] Hartwig and Rosenthal, eds. 1793. Technologisches Wörterbuch oder alphabetische Erklaerung aller nuetzlichen mechanischen Kuenste, Manufakturen, Fabriken und Handwerker: p. 252.

[15] "So take peach kernels / put them in a new pot / and put a fitting lid on them / the lid should be sealed so that no steam comes out / otherwise the kernels would become completely ash. Bring the pot to a potter who is going to a kiln / so that he adds it to the other pottery in the oven. When he finished burning / so take the pot and open it, then the stones are coal black. These pound in a mortar very small / and grind long and well / on a stone / until they are no longer rough. Then temper it with which binder you want / so you have a nice good black." In: Boltz von Ruffach. 1549. Illuminier Buoch: p. xcvii-xciii.

[16] Voet, The Golden Compasses, vol. 2, 226.

[16] See the chapters on the purchase of silk sheets and wool sheets and the preparation of the accounts of the reign of Philip the Bold (from 1396 onwards: ADCO B. 1511; B. 1514; B. 1517; B. 1517; B. 1519; B. 1521; B. 1526; B. 1532; B. 1538). See also Abraham-Thisse, Simonne, “Achats et consommation de draps de laine par l'hôtel de Bourgogne, 1370-1380”, in Commerce, finances et sociétés, XIème XVIème siècle, recueil de travaux d'Histoire médiévale offert à M. le professeur Henri Dubois, Paris, 1994, p. 27-70.

[16] Reynolds, The market, 831-852.

[16] Cennini. c. 1400. In: Broecke.2015. Cennino Cennini’s Il libro dell’arte: p. 60-61; Merrifield. 1844. A Treatise on Painting. Written bu Cennino Cennini in 1434: p. 21-22.

[16] The mass-production in Thuringia continued in the nineteenth century and reached 250 000 vats just from one village, Elgersburg. See: Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha, Statistisches Bureau. 1866. Mittheilungen aus dem Statistischen Büreau des Herzogl. Staats-Ministeriums zu Gotha über Landes- und Volkskunde, besonders bezüglich des Herzogthums Gotha. 2. Theil, 3. Heft: p. 720.

[16] Schrader, “‘Greater than ever he was’,” 68–93; Schraven, Festive Funerals, 53–80.

[16] Asaert, De Antwerpse scheepvaart, 333–338; Asaert, Documenten, 14; Sutton, Mercery, 308.

[16] https://www.uantwerpen.be/en/summer-schools/roohts-summer-school/

[16] In the FARO convention of 2005 heritage is defined as a group of resources inherited from the past which people identify, independently of ownership, as a reflection and expression on their constantly evolving values, beliefs, knowledge and traditions.

[16] For the most effective method of dying black, see Ortega-Saez, “Black Dyed Wool”, 61-66; and for the range of dyestuffs and recipes used to create black, de Graaff, Colorful Past, 286-323.

[16] Dubois, “La scene de presentation des Chroniques de Hainaut”, 122; Kren and McKendrick, Illuminating the Renaissance, 3.

[16] Du Mortier, “Costume & Fashion,” 160.

[17] Natalia Ortega Saez, Vincent Cattersel, (University of Antwerp), Sven Dupré, Jenny Boulboullé, (Utrecht University, Artechne), Art Proaño Gaibor, (Cultural Heritage Agency RCE), Birgit Reissland, Erma Hermens, (University of Amsterdam, UvA), Samuel Mareel, Marijke Wienen, (Museum Hof van Busleyden).

[17] Elffers and Sitzia, “Defining participation,” 43.

[17] De Nave and Imhof, Botany in the Low Countries, 47. On the biography and works of Peeter vander Brocht, see Mielke, Mielke, and Luijten, Peeter van der Borcht, vol. 1, xvii–xxvii.

[17] Seiler-Baldinger, Textiles, A Classification of Techniques, 92.

[17] Schraven, Festive Funerals, 56.

[17] Three accounts of his expenses as Earl of Nevers have been kept at the ADCOs: B. 5518 (1 June 1498-31 December 1498 and 1 January 1419-31 December 1420); B. 5519 (1 January 1401-31 December 1402); B. 5520 (1 January 1403-30 June 1405); see Léon Mirot, Jean-Sans Peur de 1398 à 1405, d'après les comptes de sa chambre aux deniers (Paris, 1939, extract from l'annuaire-bulletin de la Société de l'histoire de France, année 1938)

[17] le Begue. 1431. citing Eraclius 'De coloribus et artibus Romanorum'. In: Merrifield. 1849. Original Treatises, Dating from the XIIth to the XVIIIth Centuries, Vol. 1: p. 138.

[17] Deploige & Stabel, Textile entrepreneurs, 9-10.

[17] Verougstraete and Van Schoute, “Le frontispice des Chroniques de Hainaut. Examen en laboratoire,” 149; Campbell, “Rogier van der Weyden and manuscript illumination,” 89.

[17] Drost, Documents, no. 78, 12199B FO 3RO-VO, pp. 53–54. A tonneau is equivalent to about 979 kg, although as it was a variable measure it is difficult to be precise: Doursther, Dictionnaire, 540.

[17] For woad, and the labor-intensive process of preparing the indigo vat, see Kirby, Van Bommel and Verhecken, Natural Colorants 65-66; Edmonds, History of Woad, 13-47; Hartl, Proaño Gaibor, van Bommel, Hofmann-de Keijzer, “Searching For Blue”, 9-39.

[17] le Begue. 1431. citing Eraclius 'De coloribus et artibus Romanorum'. In: Merrifield. 1849. Original Treatises, Dating from the XIIth to the XVIIIth Centuries, Vol. 1: p. 138.

[18] Onghena, “Heere, de oude, Jan, de,” 298.

[18] "But if you don't find any soot, take birch bark and burn it in a fire and cover this with a small pot or a glazed earthenware vessel, so the smoke must touch it. The soot that grows on it is quite good." In: Codex Germanicus 1. 1454-1463. Hamburg, Staats-und Universitätsbibliothek, Cod. Germ. 1: fol. 73r. also in: Heiles (2018): p. 13-61.

[18] Asaert, “De oudste certificatiën”; Doehard, Études anversoises, 1: 78–82; Puttevils, Merchants, 20–26.

[18] The “Museums change lives” campaign supported by Museum Associations in the UK or the “Our Museums” program from the Paul Hamlyn Foundation are but a few of the many initiatives giving evidence to this change in attitude and museum’s perception, see: https://www.museumsassociation.org/museums-change-lives or http://ourmuseum.org.uk/?welcome=1.

[18] Participants of the summerschool ROOHTS, Burgundian Black 2019, Griet Blanckaert, Cristina Cipriano, Charles Indekeu, Maria José Moreno Parada, Marie Hartmann, Marc Holly, Wilfried Pullinckx, Michelle Robinson, Sharifa Lookman, Younsool Shin, Guenevere Souffreau, Katia Weber, Young mi Yeo.

[18] Voet, The Golden Compasses, vol. 2, 199 and 211.

[18] Accounts of the “recette générale de toutes les finances” consulted: Archives départementales du Nord B. 1878 ; B. 1894 ; B. 1897 ; B. 1903; ADCO B. 1547 ; B. 1554 ; B. 1556 ; B. 1558 ; B. 1560 ; B. 1562 ; B. 1572 ; B. 1576 ; B. 1601 ; B. 1603

[18] Capmany y Montpalau, Memorias Historicas, 892.

[18] Colenbrander, Zolang de weefkunst bloeit, 308

[18] On craft secrecy e.g., Long, “Openness, secrecy, authorship: technical arts and the culture of knowledge from antiquity to the Renaissance”; Davids, “Public knowledge and common secrets. Secrecy and its limits in the Early-Modern Netherlands” and “Craft Secrecy in Europe in the Early Modern Period: A Comparative View”.

[18] For the damaging effect of tannin-laden ingredients mixed with substances containing iron, see, for example, Buss, “Very Fine Black”, 110; and Ortega-Saez, “Black Dyed Wool”, 73.

[19] E.g. Hilliard. 1602-03. A treatise concerning the arte of limning: p. 70-73, Norgate. 1621-26. An exact and Compendious Discours concerning the Art of Miniatura or Limning: p. 7, Sanderson. 1658. Graphice, the use of the pen and pensil: p. 57.

[19] Seiler-Baldinger, Textiles, A Classification of Techniques, 92–93.

[19] De Nave and Imhof, Botany in the Low Countries, 49–50.

[19] Archives départementales du Nord, B 1920, published in Robert Favreau, Michel Mollat, Robert Fawtier, Comptes généraux de l’Etat bourguignon entre 1416 et 1420 (Paris, Imprimerie nationale, 1976), 6 vol, III, 1403-1404.

[19] Willis, The Close-Knit Circle, 9-11; Turnau, History of Knitting, 20.

[19] Borchert, “Imaging History – Imagining History”, 10.

[19] Lookman Sharifa, "Experiencing Historical Techniques through the Color Black at the ROOHTS Summer School," in Recipe Hypotheses, ed. Joshua Schlachet (UK: The Recipes Project: Food, Magic, Art, Science, and Medicine, 2019). https://artechne.wp.hum.uu.nl/experiencing-historical-techniques-through-the-color-black-at-the-roohts-summer-school/

[19] Sherry R Arnstein devised the ‘ladder of participation’ that suggests there are eight levels of citizen participation, from ‘manipulation’ at the bottom of the ladder to ‘citizen control’ at the top. Arnstein, “A Ladder,” 216–224.

[19] State Archives Ghent, Archive of St Bavo, K 10199.

[19] This experiment was carried out at the Making and Knowing lab at Columbia University by Sophie Pitman. For the experiment and the recipe “Take lye of quicklime & litharge, mix & soak, & you will make a tawny dye, & by reiterating it you will make black,” see Pitman, “Black colour for Dyeing”.

[19] State Archives Ghent, Archive of St Bavo, K 10199.

[19] Alum was imported from Tolfa in the Papal states through Italian distributors until 1549; thereafter it was sourced from Mazarrón, Spain: Puttevils, Merchants, 69–70. On roads, see van Gelder, Trading Places, 41–46.

[20] The collegial church of St Bavo became a cathedral in 1561.

[20] Bartl et al., Der ‘Liber illuministarum’ aus Kloster Tegernsee, 547.

[20] Anon., The Cronycles. Bv.2.17

[20] Simon, Participatory Museum; and Neuville and Rowson-Love, Visitor-Centered Exhibitions.

[20] On imported colorants see Jo Kirby’s essay in this volume. See on red insect dyes, Serrano, “The Red Road.”

[20] De Nie, De ontwikkeling der Noord-Nederlandsche textielververij; Thijs, Van “werkwinkel” tot “fabriek, 184.

[20] Doehard, Études anversoises, 2: no. 1352, p. 194; 2: no. 1751, p. 253; 3: no 2366, p. 36.

[20] On the culture of copying plant portraits, see Eisendrath, “Portraits of Plants,” 291–327.

[20] Guénée, Bernard, L’Occident au XIVe et XVe siècle, Les Etats (Paris, PUF, 1998), p. 150.

[20] Watteeuw and Van Bos, “Chroniques de Hainaut: observaties en resultaten van de analyses op zes miniaturen,” 159.

[20] Rosetti, The Plichto. For other treatises providing rich information on the materials and techniques used for dyeing silk cloths in the Renaissance period, see Molà, Silk Industry, 107-108. For discussion, see Rublak, ‘Renaissance Dress’, 10.

[21] Asaert, “Handel in kleurstoffen.”

[21] Mattioli, Commentarii, 920.

[21] Cennini. c. 1400. in: Broecke. 2015. Cennino Cennini’s Il libro dell’arte: p. 60-61; Merrifield. 1844. A Treatise on Painting. Written bu Cennino Cennini in 1434: p. 21-22.

[21] Taddei, Ilaria, “S'habiller selon l'âge. Les lois somptuaires florentines à la fin du Moyen Âge”, in Le Corps et sa parure. The Body and Its Adornement, Micrologus 15, SISMEL, pp.329-351, 2007.

[21] Cennini. c. 1400. in: Broecke. 2015. Cennino Cennini’s Il libro dell’arte: p. 60-61; Merrifield. 1844. A Treatise on Painting. Written bu Cennino Cennini in 1434: p. 21-22.

[21] Simon, Participatory Museum.

[21] Rijksmuseum, Rotterdam Museum, Museum Het Prinsenhof Delft, and other collections.

[21] The detailed rendering makes it possible to identify the book fastening mechanism as a hook-clasp mechanism.

[21] For Books of secrets in the Renaissance period, see, for example, Eamon, Science and the Secrets of Nature.

[21] The term ‘reworking’ is more suitable for reconstructing historical recipes, as this term reflects the laborious aspect of making historical recipes in all its aspects. Sven Dupré and Jenny Bouloullé, Burgundian Black (Antwerp: University of Antwerp, Utrecht University, 2019); Hagendijk, Reworking Recipes. Reading and Writing Practical Texts in the Early Modern Arts. Dissertation, Utrecht University 29 June 2020.

[21] Capmany y Montpalau, Memorias Historicas, 892.

[21] Gruben, Les chapitres de la Toison d’Or.

[21] See Reissland, 'A Practical Guide to the Production of Black Pigments, 1350-1700' elsewhere in this volume.

[22] Capmany y Montpalau, Memorias Historicas, 319-320.

[22] Doehard, Études anversoises, 2: no. 1101, p. 162.

[22] In 1504, the inventory of the library of Maximilian of Austria in Bruges provides a vivid picture of the binding: it has a ‘much-worn black figured satin binding with two gilt brass clasps decorated with the steel of the Golden Fleece and with five gilt brass knobs on each side’, suggesting an intensive use during the 50 years after its creation, see Buren “New evidence for Jean Wauquelin's activity in the Chroniques de Hainaut and for the date of the miniatures,” 252.

[22] See Nicolai, Gerbrandum. Een Cleyn Verff-Boecken Inhoudende Seer Constighe Saeyet Verwen, Nut En Profytelijck Voor Breyders En Oock Voor Andere Persoonen Die Haer Dit Werck Mede Willen Bemoeyen. 2nd edition. Leeuwarden, 1638.

[22] Burnham, Warp and Weft, a Textile Terminology, 163.

[22] Anne-Laure Van Bruaene, “The Last Chapter of the Golden Fleece (Ghent, 1559). Burgundian Ritual, Church Space and Urban Lieux de Mémoire,” Dutch Crossing 43, n° 1 (2019): 7-26.

[22] De Nave and Imhof, Botany in the Low Countries, 51.

[22] Since the exhibition will remain in the museum until June 2021 the numbers in this article only represent a temporary reflection.

[22] Smith, In the Workshop of History, 5, 145.

[22] Kruse, Holger, Paravicini, Werner(Hg.), Die Hofordnungen der Herzöge von Burgund. Band 1: Herzog Philipp der Gute 1407–1467, Instrumenta, 15,1 (Ostfildern, Thorbecke, 2005)

[23] “Black from Germany. It comes from Frankfurt, Mainz, & Strasbourg, as black stone & powder, which is burnt wine lees & thrown in water & after being dried we pass it through special mills”, in: Pomet. 1694. Histoire générale des drogues, traitant des plantes, des animaux. Livre VII, Chapt. LXXII: p. 256.

[23] Hofenk De Graaff, Natural Dyestuffs, Origin, Chemical Composition 35-36; Ortega, Black Dyed Wool in North Western Europe, 166-171.

[23] Coghen, Conste des Ververs; Van Veen, De Wetenschap; Gerbrandum, Een cleyn verff-boecxken.

[23] Van Bruaene, “The Last Chapter,” 14.

[23] Landau and Parshall, The Renaissance Print, 22; Voet, The Golden Compasses, vol. 2, 228.

[23] On mise-en-abyme as a strategy in medieval artistic production, see Whatling, “Narrative Art in Northern Europe, c.1140-1300: A Narratological Re-Appraisal,” ch. 7, 173-178. The ancient French spelling with a y, was refashioned by André Gide (1869-1951), who revived it as a favored device in postmodernist fiction, Baldick, “mise-en-abyme”.

[23] Paviot, Jacques . “Éléonore de Poitiers, Les États de France (Les Honneurs de la Cour) [nouvelle édition]”, in Annuaire-Bulletin de la Société de l'Histoire de France, 1996, p. 75-137

[23] Van der Wee, Growth of the Antwerp Market, I: 29, 100, 102, and 242–244; II: 116–18.

[23] For the discovery and dissemination of logwood, see, for example, Kirby et al., Natural Colorants, 20-22.

[23] Colenbrander, Zolang de weefkunst bloeit, 125.

[24] See Buss, Seta and “Half-Tints”. For the meaning of different nuances of black clothing in portraiture, especially to communicate the sitters’ age, status, professions, or political affiliations, see Currie, Fashion and Masculinity, 167.

[24] Engel, “Over enkele origineelle teekeningen,” 46–55. In tracking down the drawings, it was discovered that the Amsterdam Zoological Museum no longer exists and the collection was transferred to several places, including the special collections at University of Amsterdam Library, Artis Library, and the Naturalis Biodiversity Center, among possibly others. None of the abovementioned institutions have identified the sketches as part of their collections. However, it is possible that they are in the restricted parts of the institutions’ archives that are not available at the moment.

[24] Tbouck va[n] Wondre, Brussels: Th. Van der Noot, 1513; Tbouck van wondre, Antwerp: S. Cock, 1544; Frencken, T bouck vā wondre, 1513, 24-25.

[24] Theoretical treatises and funeral relations intended to serve as a reference and model are kept in the family archives, for example in the “Statuts de Savoie” written in 1430. Pollini, Nadia, La mort du Prince, op. cit. p. 41

[24] Fillitz, Schatten van het Gulden Vlies, 36.

[24] Ortega, Material analysis versus historical dye recipes,115-132.

[24] Scholars have highlighted the model function of the frontispiece of the Chroniques de Hainaut, e.g., Schandel, “Jean Hennecart,” 209.

[24] Blue dyebath with logwood, indigo or woad, followed by a mordant like copperas, blue vitriol or verdigris; see Ortega Saez, Black Dyed Wool in North Western Europe, 72.

[24] Evelyn, Silva, 1: 240–244.

[25] Jolivet, Sophie, “Les dépenses de deuil par l'hôtel de Philippe le Bon: une conception familiale et hiérarchique de la mort”, in Mourir à la cour, Normes, usages et contingences funéraires dans les milieux curiaux à la fin du Moyen-age et à l'Epoque moderne, Cahiers Lausannois d'histoire médiévale, Université de Lausanne, 2017, pp.47-61

[25] The interpretation of the illustrations is aided by the translations provided by Rabb, A Sixteenth-Century Book of Trades, 33 and 35.

[25] Stijnman. 2010. Frankfurt Black: p. 415–425.

[25] Although these samples are well-preserved in a book that would likely not have been exposed to much light, it is nonetheless possible that the samples have faded over time.

[25] Ortega, Black Dyed Wool in North Western Europe, 166-167.

[25] Although these samples are well-preserved in a book that would likely not have been exposed to much light, it is nonetheless possible that the samples have faded over time.

[25] On the purchase of blecken by the Duke of Brabant, see Van der Wee, Growth of the Antwerp Market, I: 25, note 123; on preparation of the dye, see Cardon, Natural Dyes, 423 and 425–427; de Nie, De ontwikkeling, 196–9; Hofenk de Graaff, The Colourful Past, 294–295; on the Ypres legislation, see Espinas and Pirenne, Recueil de documents, no. 42, 623–624.

[25] Wauquelin is designated with this term in archival records, Blondeau, “Jean Wauquelin et l’illustration de ses textes,” 214.

[25] Van Bruaene, “The Last Chapter,” 11.

[25] Stijnman. 2010. Frankfurt Black: p. 415–425.

[25] Struckmeier, Die Textilfärberei, 242.

[25] Ortega Saez, Black Dyed Wool in North Western Europe, 98. On diverse historical names for black dyed textiles, see also Natalia Ortega Saez’s essay in this volume.

[26] Hofenk de Graaff, The Colourful Past, 335.

[26] Hind, An Introduction to A History of Woodcut, 7; Landau and Parshall, The Renaissance Print, 7 and 23.

[26] The most expensive colour remained red dyed with crimson dye, at 40 soldi per pound. Currie, Fashion and Masculinity, 100-101.

[26] Previously, colorful tones testified to the conception that the expression of despair was contrary to the spirit of a religion for which death only means a passage to a better afterlife.

[26] Vanessa Agnew, Jonathan Lamb, and Juliane Tomann, “Introduction: What is Reenactment Studies?”, in Agnew, V., J. Lamb, J. Tomann (eds, 2020). The Routledge Handbook for Reenactment Studies, London/ New York: Routledge, pp. 1-10: 7.

[26] Analysis performed by A. Ness Proaño Gaibor showed the presence of ellegic acid, a degradation product of tannins from a plant source, possibly gallnuts or sumac; see Ortega Saez, Black Dyed Wool in North Western Europe, 316.

[26] Van Bruaene, “The Last Chapter,” 16.

[26] Veenstra, “'Le prince qui se veult faire de nouvel roy': The Literature and Ideology of Burgundian Self-Determination,” 208.

[26] Van Bruaene, “The Last Chapter,” 16.

[26] Cardon, Natural Dyes, 410–412 and 414–418.

[26] For more information on these colorants, see also the essay by Kirby elsewhere in this volume.

[27] One of the first representations is on the tomb of Sancho Diaz de Carillo, dating from the late 13th century, kept in the Catalan Art Museum in Barcelona. Piponnier, Françoise, “Les étoffes du deuil”, in A réveiller les morts: la mort au quotidien in l’occident médiéval, op.cit, p. 135 à 140

[27] Preliminary results of analysis carried out by A. Ness Proaño Gaibor, RCE in February 2020, using Ultra High Performance Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry.

[27] According to Reitsma, ‘bone mineral’ is a hydrated hydroxyl-depleted carbonated calcium phosphate phase which is closely related to the geological hydroxyapatite, but has some important chemical differences. Reidsma et al. 2016. Charred bone: p. 283.

[27] Hofenk De Graaff, Natural Dyestuffs, Origin, Chemical Composition, 35-36; Cardon, Natural Dyes, 20.

[27] Quoted in Pitman, “Black Color for Dyeing”. The note is found in a recipe for black, under a section on “Scarlets”, which discusses the costs of dyeing cloth per ell, at BnF Ms. Fr. 640, fol. 38v: “Escarlates/ Pource que laulne couste a taindre sept ou huict lb/ Ils y employent des draps de sept ou huict frans laulne/ Mays qui en veult avoir de belle se la quil achepte du/ drap blanc de quinze frans laulne & la face taindre/ avecq pastel pur descarlatte & un peu de cochenille Le/ drap noir se trouve fort fin pource que la taincture est a bon marche”. See The Making and Knowing Project et al, Secrets of Craft and Nature in Renaissance France, https://edition640.makingandknowing.org/#/folios/38v/f/38v/tc.

[27] Anon., Receptenboek om allerlei kleuren te verwen….

[27] Pegolotti, La pratica, 295 and 371.

[27] Griffiths, The Print Before Photography, 47.

[27] Blondeau, “A very Burgundian Hero: The figure of Alexander the Great under the Rule of Philip the Good,” 33.

[27] Waterschoot, “Leven en betekenis,” 35-54.

[28] Trentelman and Turner, 'Investigation of the Painting Materials and Techniques of the Late-15th Century Manuscript Illuminator Jean Bourdichon', 577–84.

[28] Hofenk de Graaff, Dyeing black, 60.

[28] Trentelman and Turner, 'Investigation of the Painting Materials and Techniques of the Late-15th Century Manuscript Illuminator Jean Bourdichon', 577–84.

[28] Waterschoot, “Leven en betekenis,” 54–124; Van Dam, “Lucas d’Heere,” 3–88.

[28] Trentelman and Turner, 'Investigation of the Painting Materials and Techniques of the Late-15th Century Manuscript Illuminator Jean Bourdichon', 577–84.

[28] Bowen and Imhof, “The Case of Engravers,” 166.

[28] Trentelman and Turner, 'Investigation of the Painting Materials and Techniques of the Late-15th Century Manuscript Illuminator Jean Bourdichon', 577–84.

[28] Boulton and Veenstra, The ideology of Burgundy, xvi, Wrisley, “Burgundian Ideologies and Jean Wauquelin's Prose Translations,” 134; Small, “Of Burgundian Dukes, Counts, Saints and Kings (14 C.E.- c. 1520),” 154.

[28] Salomon Mesdach, Hortensia del Prado, d. 1627, Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam, SK-A-910 shows a cap with black lace; Michiel van Miereveld. Hendrick Hooft, 1640. Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam, SK-A-1250; Michiel van Miereveld. Aegje Hasselaer, 1640, Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam, SK-A-1251; and Bartholomeus van der Helst. Geertruida den Dubbelde, 1668. Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam, SK-A-141

[28] Monstrelet, Enguerrand (de), Chronique,(L. Douët d’Arc éditeur), Paris, Jules Renouard, 1859, t. III, p. 361

[28] For guild regulations over dye practices, see Molà, Silk Industry, 107-137. For examples of inexpensive printed booklets with recipes related to textiles, dyes or stain removal, see, for example, Fasciculo de molte cose meritevole; Opera nova chiamata Secreti secretorum; Opera nova de Ricette et Secreti; and Opera nova excellentissima (1529); Recettario nuouo (1546). I thank most warmly Michele Robinson for her research on these printed books and providing me with extensive information about these recipe books.

[28] In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries the nomenclature for dye plants was diverse and not yet standardized. For the sake of clarity the modern Linnaean terminology is included where possible between brackets.

[28] Melis, Aspetti, doc. 209, p. 384. The cantar varied considerably in size across Italy, Turkey and the Mediterranean region: Doursther, Dictionnaire, 86–88). For the letters, see http://datini.archiviodistato.prato.it/ Carteggio specializzato / Ricordanze / Busta 1167, codice 9302321; Carteggio specializzato / Estratti-Conto / Busta 444, inserto 7, codice 400558, 25/09/1383; Carteggio specializzato / Estratti-Conto / Busta 505, inserto 13, codice 101127, 19/01/1384.

[28] Boulton and Veenstra, The ideology of Burgundy, xvi, Wrisley, “Burgundian Ideologies and Jean Wauquelin's Prose Translations,” 134; Small, “Of Burgundian Dukes, Counts, Saints and Kings (14 C.E.- c. 1520),” 154.

[29] Coppens, “The Trade and Production of Lace,” 73.

[29] Hofenk de Graaff, The Colourful Past, 335-336.

[29] Hurry, The woad plant and its dye, 22-27.

[29] Cruttenden. 2016. Fire & Bone. Poster.

[29] This chapter adapts American spelling for terminology, with the exception of forme. The English spelling is selected to specifically refer to the object of a printing forme.

[29] Van Dam and Waterschoot. “Tekst Lucas d’Heere,” 131.

[29] On ships calling at Southampton, see Studer, Port Books of Southampton, 112; on galls from Puglia, see Brown, Calendar of State Papers ... Venice, cxxxv–cxxxix; on galls imported into Kingston-upon-Hull, see Smit, Bronnen, no. 603, pp. 354, 361, 364.

[29] Chastellain, Georges, Oeuvres , Paris, Publié par Heussner, 1863, p.43-63 ; 143-145

[29] On the edition and translation history of the Dificio see, Deblock, Le bâtiment des recettes. The critical edition comprises a French translation of this recipe on p. 133. Dutch translations were published in Antwerpen by Hans Laet in 1549, 1551 and in Rees by Derick Wylix van Santen in 1578. On the Dutch translations see Braekman, Dat batement van recepten. The Dutch recipe is discussed in more detail in the essays in Part I, ‘Dyeing’, of this volume.

[30] Pettegree, The Book in the Renaissance, 23.

[30] Asaert, Documenten, no. 164, p. 99; no. 199, p. 122; Dietz, The Port and Trade, no. 18, p. 3; no. 45, p. 7 (the London Port Book for 1567/8).

[30] This aspect is recalled by Piponnier, Françoise, “Les étoffes du deuil”, in A réveiller les morts: la mort au quotidien dans l’occident médiéval, sous la direction de Alexandre-Bidon Danièle et Treffort, Cécile (Lyon, PUL, 1993), p. 137.

[30] Wardle, “Seventeenth-Century Black Silk Lace in the Rijksmuseum,” 207.

[30] Recettario Nuovo Copiosissimo (1550), 3v. The recipe appeared in cheap print already in 1529 in a ‘book of secrets’ titled Opera nvova intitolata dificio de ricette, and it was repeated in another cheap printed collection of recipes titled Recettario nuouo nel quale si co[n]tengono molti secreti mirabili (1546). The method was forbidden by wool guild. See Ortega-Saez, “Black Dyed Wool”, 72.

[30] Ghent University Library, ms. 2466, fol. 2r.

[30] De Nie, De ontwikkeling der Noord-Nederlandsche textielververij, 98-119.

[30] On mise-en-abyme as a strategy in medieval artistic production, see Whatling, “Narrative Art in Northern Europe, c.1140-1300: A Narratological Re-Appraisal,” 173-178.

[30] Colladon and Mayerne, MS 1990, fol. 3. Transcription and translation of the recipe by Jenny Boulboullé. For further information on Mayerne, cross reference to essay by Boulboullé Noir de Flandres in this volume.

[31] Moreno Parada, “A cap? A collar?” 22; Buss, Seta. Dizionario delle mezzetinte,” 11–30.

[31] Derolez, “Aantekeningen,” 261–271.

[31] On more extensive discussions of the punch-cutting and type-casting processes, see Carter, A View of Early Typography, 5–22; Febvre and Martin, The Coming of the Book, 56–60; Pettegree, The Book in the Renaissance, 23–25.

[31] English translation by Jenny Boulboullé

[31] This black was created using a recipe of dyeing the textile first in woad, then mordanting it with alum and sour water, and boiling it in madder for several hours. It produced a beautiful, uniform black, Noir de flandres. This recipe was reproduced in the Colour reconstruction workshop at Aalto University, 19-21 September, 2019, with Natalia Ortega-Saez, Jo Kirby and Sophie Pitman. I thank Jenny Boulboullè and Natalia Ortega Saez for the recipe.

[31] Chastellain, “Déclaration de tous les hautz faictz et glorieuses adventures du duc Philippe de Bourgongne, celluy qui se nomme le grand duc et le grand lyon”, XVIIé, cited by Jolivet in her essay elsewhere in this volume.

[31] Ortega, Material analysis versus historical dye recipes, 51-52.

[31] Brulez, De firma della Faille, 55, 98–102, 124–125, and 133. One hundred sacks of galls, said to be for a friend, arrived from Venice on the Saint John: 124.

[31] ADN, B 1927, f.132

[32] This practice seems to have appealed not only for home dyers, but also for professional dyers who were eager to cut the costs of producing black and sell their products off with a more expensive price. See Pastoreau, Black, 92. There were also other new controversial methods of dyeing silk, such as the method known ‘goro a crescente’, initially applied on haberdashery and tabbies, which produced black in a cheaper way. See Molà, Silk Industry, 133-138.

[32] See Jolivet’s essay elsewhere in this volume.

[32] Hofenk De Graaff, The Colourful Past, 313-323.

[32] Beckmann, A History, 194-195.

[32] Moxon, Mechanick Exercises, 129–196.

[32] On black dye technologies using iron waste, see also Natalia Ortega Saez’s essay elsewhere in this volume.

[32] This practice seems to have appealed not only for home dyers, but also for professional dyers who were eager to cut the costs of producing black and sell their products off with a more expensive price. See Pastoreau, Black, 92. There were also other new controversial methods of dying silk, such as the method known ‘goro a crescente’, initially applied on haberdashery and tabbies, which produced black in a cheaper way. See Molà, Silk Industry, 133-138.

[32] Derolez, “Aantekeningen”; Meganck, Erudite Eyes, 106–124.

[32] On the earlier Antwerp current price lists, see van Tielhof, ‘Mother of all Trades’, 149–151; for the Amsterdam price lists, see Cours vander commenschappen ... 1585; Cours van Negotie t’Amsterdam ... 1626; Boorsma and van Genabeek, 5.

[32] Jolivet, Sophie, Pour soi vêtir honnêtement…, op. cit., p. 689 and following.

[33] Müller, Exile Memories and the Dutch Revolt, 152.

[33] Michael Gaudio, “The Truth in Clothing,” 24–32; Katherine Bond, “Mapping Culture,” 530–579.

[33] Un manteau gris et une robe écarlate furent portés en 1445, un chaperon violet fut réalisé en 1451 (pour le chapitre de la Toison d’Or à Mons), deux vêtements blancs concernaient le costume militaire entre 1449 et 1451, et enfin un manteau et une robe furent portés pour la Toison d’Or de 1451, qui eut lieu à Mons-en-Hainaut., voir Jolivet, Sophie, Pour soi vêtir honnêtement…, op. cit., , p. 689 and following.

[33] Brulez, De firma della Faille, 103; in this case sumac was imported in 1586 by Filippo Corsini, an Italian living in London who was a partner in a della Faille project to trade goods with Naples and with Spain; for London, see Dietz, Port and Trade, 3 and 8; for Amsterdam, see Cours vander commenschappen ... 1585; Cours van Negotie t’Amsterdam ... 1626; Boorsma and van Genabeek, 5.

[33] Borchert, “Imaging History – Imagining History”, 11; Veenstra, “'Le prince qui se veult faire de nouvel roy': The Literature and Ideology of Burgundian Self-Determination”.

[33] Struckmeier, Die Textilfärberei, 71.

[33] De Nie, De ontwikkeling der Noord-Nederlandsche textielververij, 82-119; Thijs, De Technische Organisatie van de Antwerpse Textielbedrijven, 649-656.

[33] Voet, The Golden Compasses, vol. 2, 143.

[33] Buss, ‘Very Fine Black’, 111.

[33] This is recorded in The Göttingen Model Book’. c. 1450. Niedersächsische Staats- und Universitätsbibliothek Göttingen, MS. Uffenb. 51: fol. 6r. The internet-transcription reads 'kyn swarz' (Kienschwarz) = pine soot black. However, paleographically it is more likely that it means 'byn swarz' (Beinschwarz) = bone black and is included under this term here. http://www.gutenbergdigital.de/gudi/dframes/texte/frameset/indxmubu.htm.

[34] Taylor, Mourning Dress, 77; Vincent, Dressing the Elite, 63; Groebner, “Inside Out,” 101; Mentges, “Fashion, Time and the Consumption,” 387.

[34] Page, Agnès, Vêtir le Prince, tissus et couleurs à la Cour de Savoie (1427-1447) (Université de Lausanne, 1993), p. 61-74. 

[34] Cardon, Natural Dyes, 264–268.

[34] Boulboullé, cross reference (Noir de Flanders)

[34] This was connected to the contemporary idea that there should be a visible distinction between the clothing worn at different social levels. See Pastoreau, Black, 98. For a general overview and character of medieval and early modern sumptuary laws, see Kovesi-Killerby, Sumptuary Law; Diane Owen Hughes, ‘Distinguishing Signs,’ 3–60; and Riello and Rublak, The Right to Dress.

[34] Voet, The Golden Compasses, vol. 2, 143.

[34] Luijten et al., Dawn of the Golden Age, cat. no. 154, 477.

[34] Liber illuministarum. 1450/1500-1512. Munich, Staatsbibliothek, MS. Germ. 821: I, 2v, 143r. In: Bartl et al. 2005. Der "Liber illuministarum" aus Kloster Tegernsee: 420-421 [1332, 1333].

[34] De Maesschalck, De Bourgondische vorsten 1315-1530, 80; Veenstra, “Literature and ideology of Burgundian self-determination, 198.

[34] Thijs, De Technische Organisatie van de Antwerpse Textielbedrijven, 649.

[35] See Calvi, “Abito, genere”, 501.

[35] Most of the composing sticks in the museum inventory are the wooden non-adjustable ones.

[35] De Maesschalck, De Bourgondische vorsten 1315-1530, 91

[35] On the Boudaen Courten Family, see Wuestman, ‘Het familjie boeckje,” 42–61.

[35] Schweppe, Handbuch, 473-474.

[35] Gelderblom, “From Antwerp to Amsterdam.”

[35] The period under consideration is from 18 August 1443 to the end of 1447. I could not isolate the dresses made by Haine Necker between August 18, 1443 and May 16, 1447, ADN, B. 1982, f° 229 v°-230 r°.

[35] Hofenk De Graaff, The Colourful Past, 93; Cardon, Le monde des teinture naturelles, 101-110; Helmut, Handbuch der Naturfarbstoffe, 200.

[35] Vincent, Dressing the Elite, 61-3.

[36] Cardon, Natural Dyes Sources, 414-418.

[36] The principle on which the sumptuary laws of Amédée VIII are based according to Agnès Page.

[36] “Déclaration de tous les hautz faictz et glorieuses adventures de duc Philippe de Bourgogne, celluy qui nomme le grand duc et le grand lyon. Par messire Georges Chastellain, son indiciaire.”, titlepage, Chastellain and Buchon, Chronique des ducs de Bourgogne, par Georges Chastellain; on the territorial significance of the chronicles, see also Borchert, “Imaging History – Imagining History”, 6 and fn. 45 for more literature on the political importance of Burgundian historiography.

[36] Vasari, Vite de' più eccellenti pittori scultori e architettori, 94–95.

[36] Conrads, “Het Theatre,” 107-09 and 200-05.

[36] Principle on which the sumptuary laws of Amédée VIII are based according to Agnès Page.

[36] Thijs, Van “werkwinkel” tot “fabriek, 65; De Nie, De ontwikkeling der Noord-Nederlandsche textielververij, 188.

[36] There might be different practices to insert the woodblocks during a different step, but this was the most efficient way to do so according to the expert during a workshop on typesetting.

[36] ASS, Balia 830 (1599), 341v-342r: Il color nero o almeno il pavonazzo pareva da proibirsi in tutto alle donne non riseduti o non maritate a riseduti. Prohited items included black male over-garments such as saio, casacca, buricco and capotto, allowing black in bavari, fodere di cappello and liste.

[36] Vasari, Vite de' più eccellenti pittori scultori e architettori, 94–95.

[36] Cardon, Natural Dyes, 416–417.

[37] Ingold, T. (2000). The Perception of the Environment: Essays in Livelihood, Dwelling and Skill, London/New York: Routledge; Gibson, James J. 1979. The Ecological Approach to Visual Perception. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.

[37] ADN, B 1988, f. 223 r° ; ADN, B 1994, f. 186 r°-186v, ADN, B 2000, f. 162 r°.

[37] For a further discussion of black pigment recipes in sources from c. 1400–1600, see the essay of Birgit Reissland and Jenny Boulboullé, and on availability and trade in pigments Northern Europe, see the essay by Jo Kirby, both in this volume.

[37] Orsi Landini, Moda a Firenze, 28. There is a widely held assumption that black, though widely worn, was not worn by all. Harvey, for example, suggests that the complicated procedure of dying black clothing made black clothing ‘impracticable for the poor’, and a mark therefore of social distinction, see his Men in Black, 55-56 and 69.

[37] For the description of logwood black, see Instruction générale, 28–29; on varieties of wood exported, see Sanz, Comèrcio, 1: 600–601.

[37] Anon., “Tractaet om te verwen lynwaet ende garen”, BHSL.HS.1317, fol. 379v. Transcription taken from Braekman, Middelnederlandse verfrecepten voor miniaturen en "alderhande substancien", 98; English translation by Art Proaño Gaibor

[37] In Dutch “de landen van herwaarts over”, see also Schnerb, “De Bourgondische hertogen en hun ‘landen van herwaarts over’ in de 15e eeuw”;

[37] Mayerne. 1620-46. Mayerne Manuscript, London, British Library, MS Sloane 2052: fol. 130r, see: http://www.bl.uk/manuscripts/Viewer.aspx?ref=sloane_ms_2052_f130r, last accessed 17 November 2020. The first German edition of this manuscript has numerous errors that have been corrected here. For instance, ‘kurfürstlich’ was wrongly translated as a surname ‘Cheufs’, missing the link to Cranach. Berger. 1901. Quellen für Maltechnik während der Renaissance und deren Folgezeit […] Nebst dem de Mayerne Manuskript: p. 304. The binding medium is linseed oil however, the preparation method of the pigment is the same for watercolors.

[37] There are many wooden chases in the museum inventory, but it is not yet clear why there are chases made with different materials because only iron chases are mentioned in Voet, The Golden Compasses, vol. 2, 147.

[37] Cardon, Natural Dyes, 139.

[37] Meganck, Pieter Bruegel the Elder, 132–161; Meganck, Erudite Eyes, 1–13; Bass, Insect Artifice, 241–245.

[38] Van Bruaene, “The Theatrum,” 33–57.

[38] Febvre and Martin, The Coming of the Book, 62.

[38] Posthumus, Bronnen tot de geschiedenis, Vol. I, 52.

[38] For volume of logwood exports, see Sanz, Comèrcio, 1: 550 and 598–601; for English laws banning the use of logwood, see Raithby, Statutes at Large, 398 and 528; for import of logwood by Starkey, see TNA E190/8/1. The Port of London ... Overseas inwards. Easter 1588 – Michaelmas 1588, f. 66r.

[38] Small, "Of Burgundian Dukes, Counts, Saints, and Kings,” 157.

[38] Robert Delort has clearly shown that the fashion for black furs was also a 15th century phenomenon. From the 1390s onwards, martens gradually replaced (but never completely) the other furs. Then around 1420, wild furs of Russian or Nordic origin were strongly competed by domestic pelts of Mediterranean origin, especially lambs. This fur, once humble, became an ornament appreciated by the nobles. Delort, Robert, Le commerce des fourrures en Occident à la fin du Moyen Age (vers 1300-vers 1450) (Paris, Ecole Française de Rome, 1978), p. 484

[38] Anon., “Medical and technical recipes in Middle Dutch”, MS Sloane 345, fol. 33r. Transcription taken from Braekman, Medische en technische Middelnederlandse recepten, 183; English translation by Art Proaño Gaibor

[38] On audiences and uses of Norgate’s manuscript, see Muller and Murell, Edward Norgate: Miniatura, 12–20.

[38] Quoted in Currie, Fashion and Masculinity, 106-107; based on Guazzo, La Civil Conversazione.

[39] Citations are taken from the edition by Hardie, Edward Norgate and the Art of Limning, with corresponding page numbers, here page 93. See also Muller & Murrell, Edward Norgate: Miniatura, 59. This latter edition is based on the manuscript in the collection of the Royal Society, London: MS 136 with additional annotations from other manuscripts. Spring et al., “Black Earths,” 99 and note 27, found several types of black coal pigments in Italian paintings. De Mayerne (Sloane MS 2052, fols. 4r, 122v, and 156v) mentions a black coal and a black coal from Scotland (le charbon de terre d’Escosse).

[39] Waterschoot, “The Title-Page of Ortelius’s Theatrum Orbis Terrarum,” 43–68; Ziegler, “En-Gendering the World,” 127–145; McGrath, “Humanism,” 43–71; Neumann, “Imagining European Community,” 427–442.

[39] Thijs, De Technische Organisatie van de Antwerpse Textielbedrijven, 651, 656.

[39] Febvre and Martin, The Coming of the Book, 62.

[39] Chastellain (Georges), “Déclaration de tous les hauts faits et glorieuses aventures du duc Philippe de Bourgogne”, in Splendeurs de la cour de Bourgogne, récits et chroniques (Paris, Robert Laffont, 1995), p.753.

[39] Based on nearly 30,000 textile and clothing entries in the Refashioning the Renaissance database (available online in 2022 at http://refashioningrenaissance.eu/database/), transcribed from post-mortem inventories of artisans and shopkeepers from Venice, Florence and Siena, 1550-1650. The sample considered here includes only clothing items (excluding trimmings, accessories and stocks of textiles) that were found in the homes of local artisans and shopkeepers, leaving 15,534 entries. Out of these, colour was defined in 5,890 cases, of which 2,238 were described as black. Tuscan tailors’ account books also show that the artisanal clientele regularly purchased black clothes, usually made of relatively cheap fabrics, such as Sangallo wool, fustian, or linen-cotton mixes. See Cerri, “Sarti Toscani” 421-33, based on an early seventeenth-century account book of Pellegrino di Antonio Lucchesino da Silano, tailor at Livorno ASF, Libri di commercio, 3006.

[39] For more on The Silk Stockings Project see:
https://www.trc-leiden.nl/trc/index.php/nl/textiel-momenten/659-texel-silk-stockings-project-and-workshops-at-the-trc
https://mailchi.mp/4d85f40f8c16/silk-stockings-newsletter-2018-02?
https://www.trc-leiden.nl/trc/index.php/en/blog/782-silk-stockings-project-the-hall-of-fame

[39] Jolivet, “Pour soi vêtir honnêtement à la cour de monseigneur le duc de Bourgogne: costume et dispositif vestimentaire à la cour de Philippe le Bon de 1430 à 1455," 61, 63 and 74.

[39] For the patent for seizing logwood, see Overall and Overall, Analytical Index, 118–123 (IV.6, 22 November, 1615; IV.45, 30 November, 1616; IV.86, 23 September, 1617; IV.94, 22 December, 1617); for Lanyon’s petition, see Bruce, Calendar of State Papers ... Charles I, 1635–6, 73.

[40] “ainsi se passa l’an 48 sans autre aventure, et une partie de l’an 49; et faisoit le duc grandes chères et grans festimens par ses bonnes villes, où il estoit moult aimé, et voulontiers veu”, La Marche, Olivier (de), Mémoires, Livre premier, chapter XXI (Paris, 1884-1888), p. 432. 

[40] See Sturtewagen, ‘Respectably Dressed’, 157. In addition to her own data, she notes that Wim Mertens’ article on black clothing among seventeenth-century upper middle class and urban elite in Antwerp demonstrates the presence of black clothing in most households, and often in much larger portions than any other colour. See Wim Mertens, Black-dyed textiles in Antwerp Households, 1600-1650, in Black, Exhibition catalogue.

[40] On sea cole and other types of coal, see Spring et al., “Black Earths,” 99 and note 27.

[40] Green, Calendar of State Papers Domestic: Elizabeth, Addenda 1580–1625, 510–511. The dyewood fustic was used for yellows and browns. On the 1697–8 imports, see Kirby, “Painting,” 8.

[40] Partridge, A Practical treatise on dyeing, 138-144.

[40] Meganck, Erudite Eyes, 124-27.

[40] On scribes working in Jean Wauquelin’s atelier, see Parussa and Trachsler, “La scripta de Jacotin du Bois, un copiste dans l'atelier de Jehan Wauquelin.”

[40] Preliminary results of the Silk stockings project were published in Brandenburgh, Een paar zijden kousen.

[40] Pettegree, The Book in the Renaissance, 25.

[41] Cours vander commenschappen ... 1585; Cours van Negotie t’Amsterdam ... 1626; Boorsma and van Genabeek, 5.

[41] Lighter and cheaper blue undertones were also dyed to obtain purple and green colors.

[41] Point made by Currie, Fashion and Masculinity, as seen in Italian Renaissance portraiture, 99.

[41] Georges Chastellain,« Déclaration …, op. cit., 1995, p.754.

[41] Diderot, Encyclopédie. 18:0:5.

[41] Anon., Dit is een Boecxke waer in veel schoone consten ende secreten staen aengaen die verlichterie hoemen allen colueren wasschen en bereyden zal ende die selve ghebruycken, Bibliotheca Apostolica Vaticana Rom, Ms. Lat. 7279. https://digi.vatlib.it/view/MSS_Vat.lat.7279

[41] Febvre and Martin, The Coming of the Book, 64; Voet, The Golden Compasses, vol. 2, 133.

[41] Mariani manuscript, Leiden University Library, Voss. Germ. Gall. 15, Della Miniatura di Valerio Mariani…., fols. 13r–13v. Hermens is preparing a translation and fully annotated edition of this manuscript.

[41] Voges, Das Auge der Geschichte, 229–234.

[41] Van den Bergen-Pantens, “Héraldique et symbolique dans la miniature de présentation”, 127; on paiments to the court painter Hue de Boulogne, see Jolivet, “Pour soi vêtir honnêtement à la cour de monseigneur le duc de Bourgogne: costume et dispositif vestimentaire à la cour de Philippe le Bon de 1430 à 1455," e.g., 192, 205, 207, 209, 212, 221, 232-234, 241.

[42] Sound Toll Registers Online, 1, passages before 1634, records 4340023, 4220782, 4144303.

[42] Ibid. , p.752.

[42] The manuscript is the focus of the Making and Knowing project at Columbia University, New York, led by Prof. Pamela H. Smith and was also presented at the exhibition on the Toulouse Renaissance in France in 2018. The digitized treatise, a transcription, an annotated English translation, and many accompanying essays are now online accessible; see: https://edition640.makingandknowing.org. All English translations are taken from this edition. For more information on the Making and Knowing Project, a collaborative research and pedagogical initiative that created the critical digital edition, see www.makingandknowing.org, The manuscript, now held by the Bibliothèque nationale de France, is written in an anonymous hand. See https://archivesetmanuscrits.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cc508953. For more information on the anonymous author–practitioner, see the introductory essays at https://edition640.makingandknowing.org/#/essays, last accessed 28 April 2020.

[42] Thijs, De Technische Organisatie van de Antwerpse Textielbedrijven, 651, 656.

[42] Jolivet, “Le phénomène de mode à la cour de Bourgogne sous Philippe le Bon: l'exemple des robes de 1430 à 1442,” 123-123.

[42] Hofenk de Graaff, The Colourful Past, 335.

[42] Febvre and Martin, The Coming of the Book, 64.

[42] Voges, Das Auge der Geschichte, 232–234. According to Voges the birds are ravens. On the meaning of animal satire (including parrots) in the Dutch Revolt, see Van Bruaene, “Revolting Beasts,” 23–42.

[42] See Sturtewagen, ‘Respectably Dressed’, 168, for observations about black as a unifying factor between social classes in Bruges and Antwerp.

[43] Pastoureau, Michel, Noir, histoire d'une couleur, op.cit, p. 100 and following.

[43] Chroniques de Hainaut, vol. 1, Ms 9242, fol. 1, transcription cited after Van den Bergen-Pantens, “Héraldique et symbolique dans la miniature de présentation”, 125. Philip the Good inherited the titles of Duke of Burgundy and Franche-Comté, Count of Flanders and Artois, and seigneur of Salins and Malines from his grandfather, Philip the Bold, and father, John without Fear.

[43] Ortega, Black dyed wool in North Western Europe, 79.

[43] For a description of the Ashmolean manuscript MS 1494, see Black and Dunn, A descriptive catalogue, 1379-1390 and https://artechne.hum.uu.nl/node/91949; for a transcription of the recipe see https://artechne.hum.uu.nl/node/89275.

[43] Translated by Birgit Reissland: 'Item to make soot-black. Take a thick wick from coarse ropes like a swan feather, and pinch resin around it like a candle and put it under a basin that has been very neatly scrubbed, overturned on 3 half bricks; and if you want to have the whole thing [vole = complete?], you can place iiij pieces of resin on a jug or a latel [?] pan around the candle and let it fully burn, and then sweep it off the basin and grind it with water as long as Rubrijk. And put it on chalk and let it dry and put it in a box.' In the original middle Dutch, 'Item flamswart toe maken. Neem dycke lemmyt van groeven tauwe als eenswanen veder ende cleme daer harse om als een eynde van I kersen unde settet under I becken ser scoen ghescurt, ghestolpet op iij halve backen steen ende wil mens vole hebben so mach men om dat kersken legghen iiij stacke herse in een kannenschaert off in een latel panne ende latet wtbemen ende dan vechtet van den becken ende wrijstet wal myt watter also langhe al rubrijck ende steeckt op een krijt ende lattet drugen ende doet in een busse'. In Kölner Musterbuch, 1490, Cologne, Germany, Historisches Archiv der Stadt, Best, 7010 (Wallraf) 293, fol. 7r.

[43] Febvre and Martin, The Coming of the Book, 65; Voet, The Golden Compasses, vol. 2, 134–135.

[43] See the French transcription at https://edition640.makingandknowing.org/#/folios/58v/f/58v/tc, last accessed on 28 April 2020.

[44] On an “embryonic” Burgundian state, see e.g., Boulton and Veenstra, “Introduction”, xvi; Wrisley “Burgundian ideologies and Jehan Wauquelin’s prose translations,” 150.

[44] Cross-reference Jongstra; Boulboullé and Dupre methodological essays.

[44] Théodore Turquet de Mayerne, Sir Theodore de Mayerne, Pictoria, sculptoria et quae subalternarum artium, unpublished manuscript, 1620–1646. British Library Digitised Manuscripts, Sloane Ms. 2052, last accessed 25 April 2020, http://www.bl.uk/manuscripts/FullDisplay.aspx?ref=Sloane_MS_2052. The Artechne database features a full rough digital transcript: http://artechne.hum.uu.nl/node/94995. The “Mayerne manuscript” was first mentioned in Eastlake, Materials for a History of Oil Painting. Modern editions and translations: Berger, Quellen für Maltechnik; Versini and Faidutti, Le Manuscrit de Turquet de Mayerne; Van de Graaf, Het De Mayerne Manuscript; Rinaldi, Pittura, Scultura e Delle Arti Minori; Fels, Lost Secrets of Flemish Painting. On De Mayerne and the “Mayerne Manuscript” MS Sloane 2052, see e.g., Trevor-Roper, “De Mayerne and his Manuscript”; Trevor-Roper, Europe’s physician; Kern, “The Art of Conservation I: Theodore de Mayerne”; Parmentier, “Le réseau au cœur de la méthodologie de Théodore de Mayerne”; Boulboullé, “Drawn up by a Learned Physician from the Mouths of Artisans.” All French transcriptions cited in this essay are based on Berger’s edition and compared & corrected against the original folios by Jenny Boulboullé and Jurjen Munk. All English translations are by the authors.

[44] Jolivet, Sophie, “Se vêtir pour traiter : données économiques du costume de cour dans les négociations d'Arras en 1435”, Annales de Bourgogne, t. 69, 1997, pp.273-275.

[44] Edelstein, Plictho, XI.

[44] Johns, “Ink,” 119.

[45] Veenstra, “'Le prince qui se veult faire de nouvel roy': The Literature and Ideology of Burgundian Self-Determination,” 209-211.

[45] see also the above cited recipe for “Pour blanchir la Soye”.

[45] MS Sloane 2052, fol. 6, author’s translation: “Couleurs ordinaires pour huile./[…]/ Le plus fort noir se faict avec yvoire brus-/lé dans un vaisseau de fer bien fermé, avec/ Lut & sel. Ce noir n’a point de corps, & est po{ur}/ mettre sur un/ aultre noir de Lampe comme/ en glaçant, & alors est noir en extremité.” See http://www.bl.uk/manuscripts/Viewer.aspx?ref=sloane_ms_2052_f006r, last accessed 28 April 2020.
For a discussion of this recipe and the notion of “body” (corps) in black colour-making recipes in BnF Ms. Fr. 640 and MS Sloane 2052; and Boulboullé and Stols-Witlox, “Working (with) the Corps.”

[45] Brunello, The Art of Dyeing in the History of Mankind, 178.

[45] Johns, “Ink,” 117; Moxon, Mechanick Exercises, 306–312; Voet, The Golden Compasses, vol. 2, 141.

[45] ADN, B 1961, f. 159 r°.

[46] Clerq, Jacques (du), Mémoires sur le règne de Philippe le Bon (Bruxelles, édition du Baron de Reiffenberg, 1835-1836), 4 vol, vol. III, chapitre XV, p. 87

[46] Voet, The Golden Compasses, vol. 2, 150.

[46] Edmonds, The History of Woad and the Medieval Woad Vat, 31-34.

[46] Hofenk de Graaff, The Colourful Past, 346-348.

[46] See transcription of this text passage in Van den Bergen-Pantens, “Héraldique et symbolique dans la miniature de présentation,” 125; on the much-discussed use of the phrase “par la grâce de Dieu”, e.g., Schandel, “Opdrachtscènes aan het hof van de Bourgondische hertogen. Bronnen en intenties van een genre,” 75-76.

[46] MS Sloane 2052, fol. 93r, see: http://www.bl.uk/manuscripts/Viewer.aspx?ref=sloane_ms_2052_f093r, last accessed 27 April 2020.

[47] Johns, “Ink,” 117.

[47] Hurry, The woad plant and its dye, 33.

[47] Translation by Jenny Boulboullé. In the original Dutch, "Om Swart te Verwen. / Neemt schoon water / ende alst warm is / soo doet daer in tot een pont werck 4. loot Galnoten / ende een loot Crap / ende alst siet / so doet u Koosen daer in / ende latet een uyre sieden / dan neemt uyt ende hanghet te verkoen / dan doet in t’selfde sop / een vierendeel pont Coperroot / 4. loot Gom / 4. loot Vylsel / ende half loot Spaens-groen ghestooten/ ende laet dat t’samen eens opsieden / ende roertet wel onder malcander dan do ter u Koosen in / ende laetse een uyre sieden / dan neemtse uyt ende hanghtse te verkoelen / dan steeckter u Koosen weder in / ende laetse weder een uyre sieden / dan neemtse uyt ende haugtse te verkoelen / spoeltse uyt in schoon water / ende t’sal schoon swart zijn."

[47] MS Sloane 2052, fol. 93r, marginal note in red ink: “La corne de cerf/ bruslée, quand/ vous la broyés avec eau sur/ la pierre devient/ brune, comme/ une terre ou/ ocre. Laquelle/ si vous meslee/ avec huyle sur/ la palette, il/ se faict un noir comme jaget/ tresbeau, com-/me j’ay veu, q/ a besoing des/ additions ordi-/naires pour/ seicher. Ce q’l/ ne faict jamais/ de soymesme.” See http://www.bl.uk/manuscripts/Viewer.aspx?ref=sloane_ms_2052_f093r, last accessed 28 April 2020.

[47] Hablot, Laurent, “Les signes du pouvoir”, in Histoire et images médiévales, thématique n°17, mai-juin-juillet 2009, p. 66-71; Slanicka, Simona Krieg der Zeichen. Die visuelle politik Johanns ohne Furcht und der armagnakishe-burgundische Bürger krieg (La guerre des signes. La politique visuelle de Jean Sans Peut et la guerre civile Armagnacs-bourguignons) (Göttingen, 2002) ; Hablot, Laurent, ”Les signes de l'entente. Le rôle des devises et des ordres dans les relations diplomatiques entre les deux de Bourgogne et les princes étrangers de 1380 à 1477”, Revue du Nord, n°345-346, t.84, April-September 2002, p. 319-341; Hablot, Laurent, La devise, mise en signe du prince, mise en scène du pouvoir. L'emblématique des princes en Europe à la fin du Moyen-Age (Turnhout, Brepols, 2009).

[47] Pastoureau, “Wapens, spreuken, emblemem”, 93.

[47] Coghen, Conste des Ververs.

[48] Studio Claudy Jongstra and David Santandreu, (Indigo a most precious blue, Damme, 2019).

[48] Verhecken, Conste des ververs, 61.

[48] ADN, B 1948, f. 300 v°.

[48] The majority of the MPM blocks could still reproduce clearly printed images for woodblock catalogues after almost 400 years and hundreds to thousands of impressions, suggesting that the early modern inkers were quite skillful to keep the matrices in good conditions.

[48] MS Sloane 2052, fol. 97r: “Du noir./ Le bon & excellent noir se doibt faire d’une substan-/ ce osseuse blanche extrêmement compacte./ Voyés que feront les dents de cheual, de boeuf,/ de chien, de sanglier, de Rosart./ Les os petreux de veau & de cheual. Le tout/ bruslé en vaisseau exactement clos.” See http://www.bl.uk/manuscripts/Viewer.aspx?ref=sloane_ms_2052_f097r, last accessed 27 April 2020.
Cennino Cennini, Il Libro dell’Arte, Chap. 37 describes the preparation of various black pigments. See Broeke, Cennino Cennini.
Reconstruction experiments to make antler, sheep bone and other black pigments following instructions from the De Mayerne manuscript have been performed during the Burgundian Black ROOHTS summerschool in Antwerp, July 2019 and with master students Painting Conservation, University of Amsterdam, February 2020, see essays by Natalia Ortega Saez and Jenny Boulboullé & Birgit Reissland elsewhere in this volume.

[48] De Maesschalck, De Bourgondische vorsten 1315-1530, 111, 163-164.

[49] BnF Ms. Fr. 640, fol. 65r, see the French transcription at https://edition640.makingandknowing.org/#/folios/65r/f/65r/tc, last accessed on 28 April 2020.

[49] Verhecken, Conste des ververs, 59-60.

[49] Febvre and Martin, The Coming of the Book, 30.

[49] On artisanal networks, see e.g., Vanwijnsberghe, “Aan het Hof en in de Stad: de miniatuur in de Bourgondische Nederlanden in de 15e eeuw,” 270; Deploige and Stabel, “Textile entrepreneurs and textile workers in the medieval city”

[49] Schnerb, Bertrand, L'État bourguignon (Paris, Perrin, 1999), chapter 22: L'état bourguignon face au particularisme urbain, en particulier “le temps des révoltes”, p. 373-379.

[49] For more information on Noir de Flandre, see also the essay by Boulboullé elsewhere in this volume.

[50] Georges Chastellain and J.A. Buchon, Chronique des ducs de Bourgogne, par Georges Chastellain, vol. II–III (Paris: Verdière, 1827), XVII. https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k6227595m

[50] MS Sloane 2052, fol. 4r: “Peu de Couleurs sont necessaires à un peintre/ pour peindre à huile, & le meslange de ces peu/ faict & compose toutes les aultres./ blanc de plomb./ Noir. Terre noire ou Crayon noir. Black/ [c]halke qui facilement se seiche, est gras, &/ s’estend fort bien, & vault mieulx que le char-/bon commun dont on faict le Bleu noir ou Noir/ bleu, pour peindre Satin & semblables choses.” With a marginal note in red ink on the left: “ Noir de houïlle ou/ charbon de terre/ d’Escosse./ Noir de charbon/ de sarment de vigne/ est bleüastre.” Noir de houïlle ou/ charbon de terre/ d’Escosse./ Noir de charbon/ de sarment de vigne/ est bleüastre.” See: http://www.bl.uk/manuscripts/Viewer.aspx?ref=sloane_ms_2052_f004r, last accessed 27 April 2020. Noir de huïlle most likely refers to a black coal deriving from a carbonaceous sedimentary rock, described in Cotgraves’ A Dictionarie of the French and English Tongues as “a kind of Minerall, in the countrey of Liege, that makes verie good fires.”

[50] Georges Chastellain and J.A. Buchon, Chronique des ducs de Bourgogne, par Georges Chastellain, vol. II–III (Paris: Verdière, 1827), XVII. https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k6227595m

[50] Cardon, Natural Dyes, 409.

[50] Georges Chastellain and J.A. Buchon, Chronique des ducs de Bourgogne, par Georges Chastellain, vol. II–III (Paris: Verdière, 1827), XVII. https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k6227595m

[50] See e.g., Van Buren-Hagiopan, “Artists of volume 1”; the most resolute attribution of the Chroniques de Hainaut frontispiece to the hand of Rogier van der Weyden is by Campbell, “Rogier van der Weyden and Manuscript Illumination”; Others have argued against this attribution, see e.g., Vaughan, Philip the Good: the apogee of Burgundy, 156.

[50] Coghen, Conste des Ververs, 40. Transcription by Art Proaño Gaibor, Natalia Ortega-Saez and Jenny Boulboullé.

[50] Voet, The Golden Compasses, vol. 2, 19.

[51] García-Frías Checa, “Some artistic and technical considerations on the ‘Portrait of Philip the Good’ in the Royal Palace of Madrid after its Restoration”, 169. On ducal portraiture see also, Jugie, “Les portraits des ducs de Bourgogne”.

[51] Febvre and Martin, The Coming of the Book, 40; Voet, The Golden Compasses, vol. 2, 19.

[51] Boulboullé, Reworking with Makers – Cross reference

[51] Hofenk de Graaff, The Colourful Past, 156; Cardon, Natural Dyes, 12-15.

[51] See https://edition640.makingandknowing.org/#/folios/59v/f/59v/tl

[52] Voet, The Golden Compasses, vol. 2, 25–28.

[52] In the original Dutch: “Item zw swarczer varb. Nym weiss weirach und zerstoss das vnd nym ein peck und sturctz daruber vnd zint in an vnd nym ein federn vnd feg den russ ab vnd nym afeinlich von eysen und legs in ein wasser vnd rurs durich einander,” anonymous manuscript, Munich, Bayerische Staatsbibliotheek, Cgm. 720, fifteenth century, fol. 229v; transcription by Ploss, who gives also a transcription of a German dye recipe with pure pine resins for black-dyeing from an anonymous fifteenth-century manuscript, Bamberg, Staatl. Bibliotheek, Msc. med. 12, fol. 182r, both cited from Emil Ploss, Ein Buch von alten Farben: Technologie der Textilfarben im Mittelalter mit einem Ausblick auf die festen Farben, 4. unveränd. Aufl (München: Moos, 1977), 109-110.

[52] García-Frías Checa, “Some artistic and technical considerations on the ‘Portrait of Philip the Good’ in the Royal Palace of Madrid after its Restoration.”

[52] MS Sloane 2052, fol. 92v: “Noir de Lampe s’il n’est bruslé devient Jaune & se/ guaste estant couché auec huile./ Estant bruslé & meslé auec blanc de plomb faict un/ beau gris bluastre quasj comme l’Indico.” See http://www.bl.uk/manuscripts/Viewer.aspx?ref=sloane_ms_2052_f092v, last accessed 28 April 2020.

[52] De Nie, De ontwikkeling. 216-218 + scheme III

[52] Cardon, Natural Dyes, 40-46; Hofenk De Graaff, The Colourful Past, 315.

[53] Thijs, De Technische Organisatie van de Antwerpse Textielbedrijven, 662.

[53] Rogier van der Weyden, Last Judgement altarpiece with closed wings, depicting the donors, Hotel Dieu, Beaune. https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/30/Weyden-beaune-achterkant.jpg

[53] See for the second edition: Muller and Murrell, Edward Norgate: Miniatura, 59.

[53] Howard, The Notorious, 9-14

[53] Moxon, Mechanick Exercises, 297.

[54] Sound track - reading the recipe

[54] Hofenk De Graaff, The Colourful Past, 313-323.

[54] Van Mander, Schilderboeck,1604: “Van Laken oft Draperinghe. Het thiende Capittel, 5 … hoe dat elck vouwen maeckt nae zijnen aerdt…”

[54] Moxon, Mechanick Exercises, 303–306.

[54] Sound track - reading the recipe

[54] Geelen and Steyaert, Imitation and Illusion, 527.

[55] Quelques folios plus loin, le drapier Jean de Pognes livra 2,5 aunes de drap noir de Montivilliers au duc pour faire deux chaperons à la nouvelle façon, ADN, B 1975, f. 157 v°.

[55] Om een swerte cupe te setten’, HS 1317, Library of Rijksuniversiteit Gent, ‘Om zwart linen doec te verwen’, MS 517, Wellcome Historical Medical Library, London (Braekman 1986) (15th century).

[55] Van Mander, Schilderboeck, 1604, idem: “T’rouw Linwaedt maeckt, gelijck natte Papieren, Rouw linnen ployen. Viercantighe vouwen, met scherpe hoecken.”

[55] The Seven Sacraments Altarpiece, today in the Royal Museum of Fine Arts, Antwerp, features a portrait of Jean Chevrot, who was the bishop of Doornik, the birth town of Rogier van der Weyden. The work was commissioned by the bishop Jean Chevrot and painted in Rogier van der Weyden’s workshop in roughly the same period as the three miniature portraits (1445 – 1450), Schandel, “Opdrachtscenes…”, 70.

[55] Clement, “A Survey,” 35.

[56] Davids, Craft secrecy in Europe in the Early Modern Period, 341-348.

[56] E.g., Reynolds, “Selfportrait and Signature in Brussels ‘Justice Scenes’: Rogier van der Weyden’s Fame and the Status of Painting”.

[56] Verhecken, Technische aspecten, 89.

[56] BnF Ms. Fr. 640, fol. 59v; see the French transcription at https://edition640.makingandknowing.org/#/folios/59v/f/59v/tl.

[56] Voet, The Golden Compasses, vol. 1, 105 and151.

[57] ADN, B 1975, f. 158; further on this is specified: “pour doubler de cinq doubles par hault et de deux par le dessous à la façon bourbonnoise les plis de deux robes”, ADN, B 1975, f. 158v°

[57] See e.g. the ducal portrait in Les Grandes Chroniques de France, St Petersbourg, Bibliothèque nationale, ms fr Qv VI 1, f° 2, https://vivaldi.nlr.ru/oi000000089/view/#page=, last accessed on 14 May 2021.

[57] De Nave and Imhof, Botany in the Low Countries, 108. On the publication of the Dutch editions, see Sabbe, “Een en ander over Dodoens' Cruydboeck-uitgaven,” 89–106.

[57] “Eine gute Hut/ farb/ Damit mand die alte Hüet, oder/ ander Schwartz geweßen abge-/ schoßne gewand, wider Hipsch/ Schwartz ferben Kan./ Nim Erlen Rinden, du darffest die/ ober Schwartz Rinden nit oben ab thun,/ sonder Nim die Rinden gar ober, vnd/ vnderst, gantz klein Zerschnitten, löge/ [18v] ein gelegt Rinden in den/ Kössel, zu vn-/ derst vff den boden, vnd doruff ein/ gelögt schliff. Vnd vff den schliff ein/ lög alt hüet, oder/ ander alt schwartz/ gewesen wullin gewanndt, vnd/ dann aber ein gelegt erlen Rinden,/ vnd doruff aber Schliff/ vnd dann/ vff den Schliff ein lög alt hiet, od[er]/ alt schwartz gewesen wullin ge-/ wanndt, vnd so fort stratum/ super stratum, gemacht, biß der/ Kössel voll wirt, Doch sheet wol zu/ vnd haben gut acht dz die Hiet, oder/ wullin gewanndt nit zu weit an daß/ ort Im Kössel gelegt warden, dz sie den I Kössel/ [19r] Kössel am ort nit an Rühren, sonsten/ möchten die Hiet, oder gewannd am/ Kössel anbrennen. Dann so/ geüß ein Frisch bron wasser dorüber/ dz Zween Zwerch finger vber die Materi/ gange, hencket dz vber dz feür vnd/ lassets j stund lang/ vngeuarlich/ mit ainander sieden, dornach den/ Kössel abgenommen, die alte hüet,/ vnd gewnnd herauß gethan vnd solches [mit]/ souberem frischem fliessendem wasser/ wol vnd sauber auß gewäschen von/ Schliff, vnd anderen vnreinigkeit[en],/ so hast hipsch Schwartz. Ja waß wullin/ gewand ist, dann dz Leinen tuch nimbt/ dise farb nit an. | Verte./
[19v] Nota/ Du muß aber zuvor, ehe du sie im/ Kessel seüdest, die hiet, oder waß/ schmotzig ist, vom schmutz/ fein Rein/ seübern vß gutter Räßer kalt gegoß-/ sener Lauge vß wäschen, vnd dann/ aller erst wie oben gehört, schwartz/ sieden oder ferben./
Nota/ Du kanst auch in der blawen Praesentz-/ farb so sie abgenutz ist, vnd nit mehr/ blaw ferbet, die alten wullinen/ hiet, vnd abgeschossenen schwartz ge-/ wesen wullin gewand, schwartz ferbe[n]./ Du must aber Vietriol in solche abge-/ nützte blawe Praesentz farb thun, | und/ [20r] vnd solchen Vietriol dorin sieden vnd/ dann erst die schwartze alte hiett,/ oder abgeschossen schwartz gewesen/ wullin gewanndt, dorin also warm/
ferben, und Es wirt hipsch schwar[tz],” anonymous manuscript, Farbbüchlin Von vilen, vnd fast allerley farben, vff Wullin, vnd Linen Thuch, oder gewand zueferben, vnd kutnieren, manuscript, codex 431, Kloster Engelberg, Obwalden, Switzerland, fol. 18r-20r, transcription by Renate Woudhuysen-Keller, Das Farbbüechlin: Codex 431 aus dem Kloster Engelberg; ein Rezeptbuch über Farben zum Färben, Schreiben und Malen aus dem späten 16. Jahrhundert. 2 vols. (Zürich: Abegg-Stiftung, 2012), vol. 1, 73-76 and discussed in vol. 2, 43.
Woudhuysen-Keller’s transcriptions of German black dye recipes from this source can be consulted in the Artechne database, see https://artechne.hum.uu.nl/node/889806 , last accessed 2 February 2021.

[57] BnF Ms. Fr. 640, fol. 63v; see the French transcription at https://edition640.makingandknowing.org/#/folios/59v/f/59v/tl, last accessed on 28 April 2020.

[57] Edelstein, Plictho, 89.

[57] Mortier, Mode & Kostuum, 161.

[57] See Campbell, “Rogier as a Designer of Works of Art in Media other than Oil and Panel.”

[58] Campbell, “Rogier van der Weyden,” 174.

[58] The “Plictho” was translated into English in 1969 by Edelstein Sidney, M., Borghetti Hector C.: Instructions in the Art of the Dyers Which Teaches the Dyeing of Woollen Cloths, Linens, Cottons, And silk by the Great Art as Well as by the Common, Translation of the first Edition of (1548). The M.I.T. Press Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Cambridge, Massachusetts, and London, England, (1973).

[58] Frencken, T bouck, 24-25

[58] Gerard, The Herball, vi; De Nave and Imhof, Botany in the Low Countries, 124.

[58] Citations are taken from the edition by Hardie, Edward Norgate and the Art of Limning, 98. See also Muller and Murrell, Edward Norgate: Miniatura. This latter edition is based on the manuscript in the collection of the Royal Society, London: MS 136 with additional annotations from other manuscripts.

[59] Frencken, T bouck, 92.

[59] For example, for a small head covering for horse riding and another big French hood with a long cornet, padded with a large roll of cloth stuffed with deer hair in the Bourbonnaise way, ADN, B 1982, f. 229 v°

[59] Hardie, Edward Norgate and the Art of Limning, 104.

[59] For more information, see also the essay by Kirby and Boulboullé elsewhere in this volume.

[59] Vanwijnsberghe, “Aan het Hof en in de Stad: de miniatuur in de Bourgondische Nederlanden in de 15e eeuw,” 268; Vanwijnsberghe, “De ‘Vlaamse’ miniatuur - route naar een verfijnde kaart van een transregionale productie,” 27.

[59] Arber, Herbals, 129–130; Woodward, Gerard’s Herbal, xv.

[60] Renate Woudhuysen provides a concise description of how to dye with the alder bark vat in her critical edition of the German Farbbüchlein, perfectly suited for those who want to try this at home with a water dispenser: 'In ein kleines fass, mit einem zapfen unten am Boden, legt man lagenweise gedörrte Erlenrinde und rostiges Eisen, bis das Fass voll ist. Dann giesst man Wasser darauf und lässt es 14 Tage lang stehen, je länger, je besser. Nach der niederländischen Methode lässt man die Tonne bis zu 6 Wochen stehen und giesst zweimal in der Woche die Flüssigkeit um, idem man sie unten abzapft un oben wieder afgiesst. Zum Färben lässt man von der Flüssigkeit in den Färbekessel ab, erhitzt sie zum Sieden und stösst dann das gebeizte Tuch hinein. Wenn es schwarz genug scheint, lässt man es abkühlen, das heisst oxidieren, und danach spült man es kalt aus. Man wiederholt das Färbe und Spülen ein-bis zweimal, um ein genüggend tiefes Schwarz zu erzielen'. Woudhuysen-Keller, Das Farbbüechlin, vol. 2, 43-47. In English, translated Jenny Boulboullé, 'In a small vat, with a stopper/bung at the bottom, you put dried alder bark and rusty iron swath in layers until the vat is filled to the top. Then you pour water on top and leave it for at least 14 days, the longer the better. According to the Dutch method you let it rest for up to 6 weeks and twice a week you fill the vat at the top with the liquid that you have first tapped off at the bottom to improve the mixture. For dyeing, you tap liquid from the vat, and you bring it to boil [in another dye vat] and you thrust the cloth into it. When it appears to be black enough, you let it cool down, this is called oxidizing, and then you rinse it in cold water. You repeat the dyeing and rinsing one or two times to achieve a sufficiently deep black colour'.

[60] Hardie, Edward Norgate and the Art of Limning, 35.

[60] St Petersbourg, Bibliothèque nationale, ms fr Qv VI 1, f° 2;

[60] Imhof, “Return My Woodblocks at Once,” 179 and 184.

[60] Woudhuysen-Keller, Das Farbbüechlin, vol. 2, 43-47.

[60] Campbell, “Rogier van der Weyden”; Campbell, “Rogier van der Weyden and Manuscript Illumination,” 87; see also Reynolds, “Illuminators and Painters’ Guilds”;

[60] Henslow, Medical works, 4.

[61] Hardie, Edward Norgate and the Art of Limning, 16.

[61] Albo & Colbert, Instruction, 150-151.

[61] See e.g., Campell, “Rogier van der Weyden and Manuscript Illumination,” 88.

[61] Imhof, “Return My Woodblocks at Once,” 179 and 184.

[61] Edelstein, Plictho, 10 and 99.

[61] For example : Paris, Bibliothèque nationale de France, ms fr 9087, f° 1; Vienne, bibliothèque nationale d'Autriche, ms 2549, f° 1 ; Bruxelles, Bibliothèque nationale de Belgique ms 9092, f° 1

[62] MS Sloane 2052, fols. 88v–88r: see http://www.bl.uk/manuscripts/Viewer.aspx?ref=sloane_ms_2052_f088v. : “Drapperie noire. Noir de Lampe, peu d’umbre. Un peu de blanc. Enfoncés auec Noir d'yvoire. mesle auec Verdet. Rehaussés auec noir de lampe allié de blanc & d’un peu d’ombre. […] satin noir. Couchés premierement auec noir d'yuoire & un peu de noir de Lampe pour le rendre gras, sans oublier le verdet vt supra, apres rehaussés auec blanc & noir de lampe & tant soit peu d’umbre. Il fault avoir l’estoffe devant soy, & mesler les couleurs sur la palette avec le cousteau. Velours noir tout de noir d'yuoire allié de verdet rehaussés auec noir de Lamp, blanc de plomb, & ombre tant soit peu pour seicher.’’

[62] Kirby e.a., Natural Colorants, 49-63.

[62] Bruxelles, BNB ms 9242, f° 1,

[62] See e.g., discussion in Van Buren,“Les portrait de Wauquelin et son rôle d’iconographe: L’apport du costume,” 248.

[62] De Nave and Imhof, Botany in the Low Countries, 44.

[62] Gerbrandum, Een cleyn verff-boecken 8; Van Veen, De Wetenschap en[de] Manieren om alderhande Couleuren.

[63] Bruxelles, BNB ms 9466, f° 1

[63] In the original German: “Recipe ain thunnen et reple ad medietatem mit erlen Rinten / [Marginal note]: Swartz |/ Postea Recipe ain pader kubel voller sliff von harnasser oder swertfeger vnd schuts auf die Rintten / poste Recipe ij scutellas plenas hammerslag/ et etiam superfunde vt prius super cortices/ oder nym feyll vom slosser ad hoc/ et desuper funde aquam et bene cooperias Et quam sic per sex ebdomadas steterit tunc extrahe antiquas cortices et nouas impone et mitte stare Et quam diu steterit et spissius tanto melius est,” Anonymous manuscript, “Liber Illuministarum pro Fundamentis Auri et Coloribus Ac Consimilibus,” Tegernsee, Munich, Staatsbibliotheek, MS. Germ. 821, about 1500, fol. 198r. Transcription and modern German translation cited from Anna Bartl et al., Der “Liber illuministarum” aus Kloster Tegernsee: Edition, Übersetzung und Kommentar der kunsttechnologischen Rezepte (Franz Steiner Verlag, 2005), 306-308. The English translation above is based on Bartl et al.’s modern German translation: “Nimm ein Fass und fülle es bis zur Hälfte mit Erlenrinden. [Marginalie] Schwarz. Nimm einen Badeeimer voll mit Schliff vom Harnischmacher oder Schwertefeger und schütte ihn auf die Rinden, dann nimm auch zwei Schüsseln voll Hammerslag oder Feilspäne vom Schlosser und schütte die gleichfalls über die Rinden. Giesse Wasser drüber und verschliesse [das Fass] gut. Und wenn das sechs Wochen lang abgestanden hat, hebe die alten Rinden heraus, gib neue dazu und lass es wieder stehen; je dicker es wird, desto besser ist es.”

[63] Campbell, “Rogier van der Weyden,” 174; Campbell, “Rogier van der Weyden and Manuscript Illumination,” 88.

[63] De Laisteyrie, Du Pastel, 33-39. https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k9816484z

[63] Coghen, Conste des ververs; Verhecken, Technische aspecten van de middeleeuwse wolververij in Diest, 87-95; Verhecken, Conste des Ververs 59-65; Dieu, Het verven der goederen te Leuven, 146-150.

[63] It should be noted that while this chapter discusses labor through male contributors, as the tasks examined were mostly performed by men, women also played some roles in the printing industry. For a case study on women’s contributions in early modern printing, see Smith, Grossly Material Things.

[63] MS Sloane 2052, fol. 93r, see: http://www.bl.uk/manuscripts/Viewer.aspx?ref=sloane_ms_2052_f093r, last accessed 27 April 2020.

[64] see e.g. black-dye recipes transcribed/translated in Emil Ploss, Ein Buch von alten Farben: Technologie der Textilfarben im Mittelalter mit einem Ausblick auf die festen Farben, 4. unveränd. Aufl (München: Moos, 1977); Gioanventura Rosetti, The Plictho: Instructions in the Art of the Dyers Which Teaches the Dyeing of Woolen Cloths, Linens, Cottons, and Silk by the Great Art as Well as by the Common by Gioventura Rosetti. Facsimile and Translation of the First Edition of 1548., ed. Sidney M. Edelstein and Hector C. Borghetty (Cambridge and London: M.I.T. Press, 1969); W. L. Braekman, "Middelnederlandse verfrecepten voor miniaturen en 'alderhande substancien'," Scripta 18 (Brussel: Omirel Ufsal, 1986); Anna Bartl et al., Der “Liber illuministarum” aus Kloster Tegernsee: Edition, Übersetzung und Kommentar der kunsttechnologischen Rezepte (Franz Steiner Verlag, 2005); Sylvie Neven, The Strasbourg Manuscript: A Mediaeval Tradition of Artists’ Recipe Collections (1400-1570), 2016; Renate Woudhuysen-Keller, Das Farbbüechlin Codex 431 aus dem Kloster Engelberg: ein Rezeptbuch über Farben zum Färben, Schreiben und Malen aus dem späten 16. Jahrhundert, 2 vols. (Zürich: Abegg-Stiftung, 2012), 39-47. Judith H. Hofenk de Graaff, The Colourful Past: Origins, Chemistry and Identification of Natural Dyestuffs (London: Archetype Publ, 2004); Sabine Struckmeier, Die Textilfärberei vom Spätmittelalter bis zur Frühen Neuzeit (14. - 16. Jahrhundert): eine naturwissenschaftlich-technische Analyse deutschsprachiger Quellen, Cottbuser Studien zur Geschichte von Technik, Arbeit und Umwelt 35 (Münster: Waxmann, 2011), 241.

[64] Merrifield, Original treatises, vol. 2, 666, 35a.

[64] Lauterbach, Geschichte, 35.

[64] Buren Hagiopan, Anne (van), “Artists of volume 1”, and “Dress and costume” in Les Chroniques de Hainaut (KBR 9242-9244), ou les ambitions d’un Prince Bourguignon, ( Turnhout, Brepols, 2000), p. 65-74 , 66 et .p. 111-117.

[64] Clark, “De Meester van de Girard de Rouissillon (Dreux Jehan),” 188.

[64] Dieu, Het verven der goederen te Leuven, 146-150.

[65] MS Sloane 2052, fol. 130r: “Schwartz in Schwartz malen oder zuschreiben./ Meister Lucas Cheufs[?], Mahler zu Wittem-/ berg, hat under andern auch diss lob/ gehabt, dass er den besten Sam[m]it soll/ gemalt haben, darumb daz er in schwarz/ noch schwarzer, und auch allerschwarzst/ hat mahlen können, dem Thue allso./ […]/Reibs/ under Leinöl, so würstu sehen/ daz schwerzer ist dan kein schwarz.” See http://www.bl.uk/manuscripts/Viewer.aspx?ref=sloane_ms_2052_f130r, last accessed 28 April 2020.

[65] Hofenk de Graaff, The Colourful Past, 327.

[65] Blanc, Odile, Parades et Parures. L’invention du corps de mode à la fin du Moyen-Age (Paris, Gallimard, 1997), p. 13

[65] Clark, “De Meester van de Girard de Rouissillon (Dreux Jehan),” 190.

[65] Verhecken, Technische aspecten van de middeleeuwse wolververij in Diest, 87-95, Verhecken, Conste des Ververs, 59-65.

[66] Buren-Hagiopan, Anne (van), “Dress and Costume”, op. cit., p. 112 Docquier, Gilles, “Le collier de l'ordre de la Toison d'Or et ses représentations dans la peinture des Primitifs flamands”, in Annales de Bourgogne, Tome 80, fascicule 1-2, numéro 317-318, janvier-juin 2008, p. 125-162

[66] See on reworkings of recipes for dyeing stockings also the essay by Art Gaibor Proaño, elsewhere in this volume.

[66] See essay by Kirby elsewhere in this volume

[66] Vanwijnsberghe, “De ‘Vlaamse’ miniatuur - route naar een verfijnde kaart van een transregionale productie,” 29.

[66] See, for an entry and technical information of this work, https://www.rijksmuseum.nl/en/collection/SK-A-3838/catalogue-entry, accessed 10 May 2020.

[67] Gerbrandum, Een cleyn verff-boecken, 8.

[67] Campbell, “Rogier van der Weyden and Manuscript Illumination”.

[67] Spring et al., “Black Earths,” 96 and note 14.

[68] Van Veen, De Wetenschap en[de] Manieren om alderhande Couleuren; see also http://resources.huygens.knaw.nl/bwn1780-1830/DVN/lemmata/data/Veen, https://www.dbnl.org/tekst/_zev001200201_01/_zev001200201_01_0013.php last accessed 15 June 2020.

[68] Although no sulphur was indicated by SEM-EDX, this may be due to the overlap in the EDX spectrum of de S Kα peak with the Pb Mα peak. When lead white is present, here most likely form an oil binder with added litarghe, this make identification of the presence of sulphur difficult.

[68] Piérard, “Conclusions”, 169; Schandel, “Oprachtscenes aan het hof van de Bourgondische hertogen”, 75.

[69] We should take into account that the structure was more visible but due to darkening of the oil this nuance was lost.

[69] For more information on these colorants, see also the essay by Kirby elsewhere in this volume.

[69] Vanwijnsberghe, “De ‘Vlaamse’ miniatuur - route naar een verfijnde kaart van een transregionale productie”; Vanwijnsberghe, “Aan het Hof en in de Stad: de miniatuur in de Bourgondische Nederlanden in de 15e eeuw,” 269-270; Clark, “The Painters of Philip the Good's Alexander”; Blondeau “Wauquelin et l’illustration de ses textes”; Schandel, “De Meester van de Alexandre van Wauquelin”; Dubois, “Willem Vrelant”; Clark, “De Meester van de Girard de Rouissillon (Dreux Jehan)”; On Rogier van der Weyden and Willem Vrelant also Kren, “From Panel to Parchment and Back: Painters as Illuminators before 1470”. See also Kren and Ainsworth, “Illuminators and Painters: Artistic Exchanges and Interrelationships”.

[70] On Mor, see Woodall, Anthonis Mor: Art and Authority.

[70] Thijs, De Technische Organisatie van de Antwerpse Textielbedrijven, 558.

[70] Dubois, “Willem Vrelant,” 238; on the debatable art historical concepts of a ‘Burgundian style’ and ‘Flemish miniature’, see e.g. Vanwijnsberghe, “Aan het Hof en in de Stad: de miniatuur in de Bourgondische Nederlanden in de 15e eeuw,” 263 and “De ‘Vlaamse’ miniatuur - route naar een verfijnde kaart van een transregionale productie”.

[71]Van de Laar et al., “From Wood to Canvas: Anthonis Mor,” 247–264.

[71] Cardon, Natural Dyes, 409.

[71] Van Buren, “Dress and Costume” and “Les portraits de Wauquelin et son role d’iconographe: L’apport du costume,” 249; Blondeau “Wauquelin et l’illustration de ses textes.”

[72] See also Winter, “The Characterization of Pigments,” 57–62.

[72] Van Estveldt, De volmaekte verwer.

[72] Schandel, “Opdrachtscènes aan het hof van de Bourgondische hertogen. Bronnen en intenties van een genre.”

[73] Jolivet and Wijsman, “Dress and Illuminated Manuscripts at the Burgundian Court: Complementary Sources and Fashions (1430-1455)”; Jolivet, “Pour soi vêtir honnêtement à la cour de monseigneur le duc de Bourgogne: costume et dispositif vestimentaire à la cour de Philippe le Bon de 1430 à 1455" and “La construction d’une image: Philippe le Bon et le noir (14191467).”

[73] Thijs, De Technische Organisatie van de Antwerpse Textielbedrijven, 662.

[74] Gerbrandum, Een cleyn verff-boecken 8; Van Veen, De Wetenschap en[de] Manieren om alderhande Couleuren.

[74] See Jolivet’s essay elsewhere in this volume.

[75] ‘Noir de Flandres’, compiled by Theodore de Mayerne (1573-1655), dated 1646, Classified Papers III (i) (1st half 17thc) Royal Society Archives, London.

[75] Much has been written on Burgundy’s extraordinary event culture, most famously perhaps in Johan Huizinga’s Herfsttij der Middeleeuwen (Atumntide oft the Middel Ages); most recently in Van Loo, De Bourgondiers, esp. “Praalzucht en Propagand”, 174-190; De Maesschalck, De Bourgondische Vorsten, 1315-1530, esp. “Pracht en praal aan het Bourgondische hof,” 139-148; Blockmans et al., Staging the court of Burgundy. On the concept of ephemeral arts and its “recorded existence”, see e.g., Smith et al., “The Matter of Ephemeral Art”; Cholcman, Art on paper: ephemeral art in the Low Countries: the triumphal entry of the Archdukes Albert and Isabella into Antwerp, 1599.”

[76] HS. 1317, Library of Rijksuniversiteit Gent. (Braekman 1986), (first half of the sixteenth century).

[76] Scarce, “Bookreview: Indigo in the Arab World by Jenny Balfourt-Paul”, 337; Hassan et al., Artistic Influences Analysis of Iraqi National Costumes, 736.

[77] Schandel, “Opdrachtscènes aan het hof van de Bourgondische hertogen,” 69-70.

[78] Schandel, “Opdrachtscènes aan het hof van de Bourgondische hertogen,” 70; Alternatively, Jean II le Gros, the audiencer of the duke’s great seal, is suggested in Buren-Hagopan, “Dress and Costume”, 112.

[79] Schandel, “Opdrachtscènes aan het hof van de Bourgondische hertogen,” 70.

[80] Opininions are divided, for Wauquelin see Dubois, “La scène de présentation des Chroniques de Hainaut. Idéologie et politique à la cour de Bourgogne”, 119 and for Nockart e.g. Schandel, “Opdrachtscènes aan het hof van de Bourgondische hertogen,” 76-78. Schandel’s identifications chimes with Small’s argument, Small, “Of Burgundian dukes, counts, saints, and kings (14 C.E. - c. 1500)”, 157.

[81] Schandel, “Oprachtscenes aan het hof van de Bourgondische hertogen”, 76.

[82] Buren-Hagopan, “Dress and Costume,” 113.

[83] See Jolivet elsewhere in this volume; Rublack, “Renaissance Dress, Cultures of Making, and the Period Eye.”

[84] Color analysis is a burgeoning research field in manuscript studies, see e.g., Panayotova et al., Colour: the art & science of illuminated manuscripts; Panayotova and Ricciardi, Manuscripts in the making: art & science; Watteeuw and Van Bos, “Black as Ink. Materials and Techniques in Fifteenth-Century Flemish Grisaille Illuminations by Jan de Tavernier, Willem Vrelant and Dreux Jehan”; Dubois, “Techniques picturales des grisailles dans les manuscrits enluminés des Pays-Bas méridionaux”.

[85] Verougstraete and Van Schoute, “La frontispice des Chroniques de Hainaut. Examen en laboratoire”; Watteeuw and Van Bos, “Chroniques de Hainaut: observaties en resultaten van de analyses op zes miniaturen”; Watteeuw and Van Bos, “Chroniques de Hainaut: Observations on Rogier van der Weyden's Handling of the Illuminator’s Brush”; see also Watteeuw, “Flemish Manuscript Production, Care, and Repair: Fifteenth-Century Sources”; Campbell, “Rogier van der Weyden and Manuscript Illumination”; Spring, “The Materials of Rogier van der Weyden and his Contemporaries in Context”.

[86] Watteeuw and Van Bos, “Chroniques de Hainaut: observaties en resultaten van de analyses op zes miniaturen.”

[87] On the abundant use of fur at the Burgundian Court, see Jolivet, “Pour soi vêtir honnêtement à la cour de monseigneur le duc de Bourgogne: costume et dispositif vestimentaire à la cour de Philippe le Bon de 1430 à 1455," 78-83.

[88] Dubois, “La scene de presentation des Chroniques de Hainaut,” 119.

[89] Kirby et al., Trade in Artists’ Materials: markets and commerce in Europe to 1700, “Pigment Glossary,” entry ‘ultramarine’, 457.

[90] On the identification of blue pigments, see Watteeuw and Van Bos, “Chroniques de Hainaut: observaties en resultaten van de analyse op zes miniaturen,” 159.

[91] Detailed descriptions of this procedure can be found in e.g., Cennini Cennino’s famous Italian Libro dell’Arte (fourteenth century), Broecke, Cennino Cennini’s Il Libro dell’Arte, 89-90, and in the so-called ‘Mayerne Manuscript’, Ms Sloane 2052, London, British Library, fol. c.1620-1655, fols. 68-70. http://www.bl.uk/manuscripts/Viewer.aspx?ref=sloane_ms_2052_f068r

[92] See e.g., Edmonds, The History of Woad and the Medieval Woad Vat; Hartl et al., “Searching for Blue: Experiments with Woad Fermentation Vats and an Explanation of the Colours through Dye Analysis”; Degani et al., “Identification of Natural Indigo in Historical Textiles by GC–MS.”

[93] On trade in artists’ materials, see Kirby’s essay elsewhere in this volume; Watteeuw, “Flemish Manuscript Production, Care, and Repair: Fifteenth-century Sources”, 78; Kirby et al., Trade in artists' materials: markets and commerce in Europe to 1700, esp. Spufford, “Lapis, Indigo, Woad: Artists’ Materials in the context of International Trade before 1700”; Childs, “Painters’ Materials and the Northern International Trade Routes of Late Medieval Europe”; Nash, “‘Pour couleurs et autres choses prise de lui…’: The Supply, Acquisition, Cost and Employment of Painters’ Materials at the Burgundian Court c. 1375-1419”; Campbell, “Suppliers' of Artists' Materials to the Burgundian Court”.

[94] Balfour-Paul, Indigo in the Arab World, 30-31.

[95]Verougstraete and Van Schoute, “La frontispice des Chroniques de Hainaut. Examen en laboratoire,” 151,

[96] Serrano, “The Red Road of the Iberian Expansion–Cochineal and the Global Dye Trade”; Hofenk de Graaff, The Colourful Past, 53-84; Cardon, Le monde de teintures naturelles, 585-642. On the use of kermes at the Burgundian Court under the reign of Philip the Bold at the end of the 14th century, see e.g., Van der Loo, De Bourgondiers, 125.

[97] The use of an organic red lakes glaze, deriving from plants (madder) or insects (kermes), has been established for other parts of the presentation miniature. Watteeuw and Van Bos, “Chroniques de Hainaut – Observations on Rogier van der Weyden’s Handling of the Illuminator’s Brush”, in Campbell et al., Rogier van der Weyden in Context, 49.

[98] On use of red lake pigments in red draperies in Rogier van der Weyden’s oil painting, see Spring, “The Materials of Rogier van der Weyden and his Contemporaries in Context”, 97-103.

[99] Anonymous, Collection of alchemical, technical, medical, magic and divinatory tracts (Miscellanea Alchemica XII), manuscript, London, Welcome Library, MS 517, fol. 226v-227r,

[100] On damasks, velvets, and brocades, see the contribution by Erma Hermens and Suzan Meijer elsewhere in this volume.

[100] See also the contribution by Erma Hermens and Suzan Meijer elsewhere in this volume.

[101] The ducal chaperons were made of black wools, Jolivet, “Pour soi vêtir honnêtement à la cour de monseigneur le duc de Bourgogne: costume et dispositif vestimentaire à la cour de Philippe le Bon de 1430 à 1455," 131-133.

[102] On commercialization, production and consumption of luxury textiles in the Burgundian Netherlands, see e.g., Lambert and Wilson, Europe’s Rich Fabric; on pre-modern weaving techniques in Western Europe, Muthesius, “Silk in the Medieval World,” 351; see also contributions in Harris, 5000 years of textiles, 165-187.

[103] Geelen and Steyaert, Imitation and Illusion: Applied Brocade in the Art of the Low Countries in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.

[104] Phipps, Looking at Textiles, 25.

[105] Phipps, Looking at Textiles, 80.

[106] Ravaud,“The contribution of radiography to the study of applied brocade,” 182.

[107] Muthesius, “Silk in the Medieval World,” 351; Monnas, “Italian Silks (1300-1500),” 169.

[108] Bonito Fanelli, “The Pomegranate Motif In Italian Renaissance Silks: a Semiological Interpretation of Pattern and Color”; Monnas, “Italian Silks (1300-1500),” 170; Geelen and Steyaert, Imitation and Illusion: Applied Brocade in the Art of the Low Countries in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, 81.

[109] The treatise Dell’arte della seta has survived in several manuscript copies. Gargiolli’s print edition, first published in 1868, contains a transcription and a facsimile of the digitized codex with 47 hand-painted illustrations in water colour, today in Florence, Biblioteca Medicea Laurenzia, Plut.89 sup. 117, http://mss.bmlonline.it/s.aspx?Id=AWOMMO6MI1A4r7GxMQ7e#/book, last accessed on 3 November 2020.
The recipe for black dying ‘Del tigner nero’ is in Cap. XXXII and ‘una pigna’ is mentioned in Cap. LVIII ‘De cammini e delle gricce’ and Cap. LIX ‘Delle gricce’, Gargiolli, L’Arte della Setta in Firenze. Trattato del se colo XV, VII-X; 59-61; 90, https://books.google.nl/books?id=b9tj3duwMRsC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false, last accessed on 3 November 2020; cited in Bonito Fanelli, “The Pomegranate Motif In Italian Renaissance Silks,” 195. On the important role of Italy in the trade of textiles and dyestuff, see Paula Hohti’s and Jo Kirby’s essays elsewhere in this volume. Black was the preferred color of silks purchased at the Burgundian court under Philip the Good’s reign, Jolivet, “Pour soi vêtir honnêtement à la cour de monseigneur le duc de Bourgogne: costume et dispositif vestimentaire à la cour de Philippe le Bon de 1430 à 1455," 69.

[110] Monnas, “Italian Silks (1300-1500),” 169.

[111] Bonito Fanelli, “The Pomegranate Motif In Italian Renaissance Silks”.

[112] Muthesius, ”Silk in the medieval world,” 351.

[113] Bonito Fanelli, “The Pomegranate Motif In Italian Renaissance Silks”; Muthesius, “Silk in the Medieval World,” 350-354.

[114] Moodey, Illuminated Crusader Histories for Philip the Good of Burgundy.

[115] Lorne Campbell refers to research on organic red lakes historically used for glazing, showing that these are less lightfast and can discolor when exposed to light. Campbell, “Rogier van der Weyden and Manuscript Illumination,” 254.

[116] Bergen-Pantens and Verougstraete, “La frontispice des Chroniques de Hainaut. Examen en laboratoire,” 151.

[117] Munro, “The anti-red shift to the 'Dark Side': Colour changes in Flemish luxury woollens, 1300 – 1550”; see also Pastoureau, Black.The History of a Colour, 78-104.

[118] On Jean Hennecart, see Schandel, “Jean Hennecart”.

[119] Scott, “The Role of Dress in the Image of Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy,” 43

[120] Scott, “The Role of Dress in the Image of Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy,” 43.

[121] Scott, “The Role of Dress in the Image of Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy,” 50.

[122] See Jolivet’s essay elsewhere in this volume.

[123] While unambiguous identifications of specific fabrics and weaves in paintings are generally problematic, the ducal dress in this miniature has been described in textile terms, e.g., Bergen-Pantens and Verougstraete, “La frontispice des Chroniques de Hainaut. Examen en laboratoire,” 151 and 154; Van Buren-Hagopan, “Dress and Costume,” 113; Scott, “The Role of Dress in the Image of Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy,” 45; Campbell, “Rogier van der Weyden and Manuscript Illumination,” 92-93; On the relationship of the portrayed clothing and those described in contemporary textual records, see Van Buren-Hagopan, “Dress and Costume”; Jolivet, “La construction d’une image: Philippe le Bon et le noir (14191467)”.

[123] Anonymous Hs.1028/1959 8°, late fifteenth century or early sixteenth century. Stadtbibliothek Trier, fol. 28r. In Braekman, 1997, Warenkennis, Kleurbereidingen Voor Miniaturisten En Vakkennis Voor Ambachtslui, p. 140, rec. 50.

[124] Proportionally, black was the most frequently chosen color for wools and silks at the Burgundian Court, Jolivet “Pour soi vêtir honnêtement à la cour de monseigneur le duc de Bourgogne: costume et dispositif vestimentaire à la cour de Philippe le Bon de 1430 à 1455," 61 and 74; Scott, “The Role of Dress in the Image of Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy,” 45.

[125] Dubois, “Willem Vrelant,” 255.

[126] Campbell, “Rogier van der Weyden and Manuscript Illumination,” 92; Bergen-Pantens and Verougstraete, “La frontispice des Chroniques de Hainaut. Examen en laboratoire,” 151.

[127] On black stockings in the Burgundian period, see the essay by Gaibor Proaño and Brandenburgh elsewhere in this volume.

[128] Margaret Scott suggests damask or patterned velvet, Scott, “The role of dress in the image of Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy”, 45. See also her concise description of the differences between both weaving techniques, 54 fn. 11.

[129] Researchers discerned a black palmette motif surrounded by a foliage motif on a dark gray ground during laboratory examinations, Bergen-Pantens and Verougstraete, “La frontispice des Chroniques de Hainaut. Examen en laboratoire,” 151 and 154.

[130] See the essays by Natalia Ortega-Saez and Vincent Cattersel, by Art Gaibor-Proaño and Chrystel Brandenburgh, by Jo Kirby, and by Paula Hohti elsewhere in this volume; Pastoureau, Black.The History of a Colour, 78-104; On the laborious pre-modern art of black dyeing and the natural colorants used, see also, Hofenk de Graaff, The Colour of the Past, 285-324; Ploss, Ein Buch von alten Farben,esp. 63-64; Cardon, Le monde des teintures naturelles, esp. 397-465.

[131] Chroniques de Hainaut, Vol. 1 [MS. 9242], fol. 2r. https://uurl.kbr.be/1310113, last accessed on 19 November 2020.

[132] The miniature might also show Wauquelin’s scribe, Jacotin du Bois, who wrote the first and second volume of the Chroniques, while copying the translation of Wauquelin.

[133] See footnote 49.

[134] Buren, New evidence for Jean Wauquelin's activity in the Chroniques de Hainaut and for the date of the miniatures, 253.

[135] Anon. Mare historiarum ab orbe condito ad annum Christi 1250, [Cod. Latin 4915], fol. 1r. https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b6000905v/f11.item, last accessed on 19 November 2020.

[136] In order to avoid repetition, only one representative example of the various inter-correlated recipe compilations has been included, e.g., see a list of manuscripts belonging to the Strassbourg-family, Neven, The Strasbourg Manuscript: A Mediaeval Tradition of Artists’ Recipe Collections (1400-1570), p. 30, table 2 “List of the manuscripts of the Strasbourg Tradition”. Later editions of publications were included in the case that new and unique information was added, as is the case for instance with the third edition of Bate, The Mysteryes of Nature and Art.

[137] Anon., De Arte illuminandi [HS 1II.E.27], in: Brunello, De arte illuminandi, 46-47; Schaeffel, De Arte Illuminandi, 2.

[138] Anon., Augsburger Kunstbuechlin.

[139] Piemontese, Die secreten vanden eerweerdighen heere Alexis Piemontois, Ruscelli (transl.)

[140] Boltz von Ruffach, Illuminier Buoch.

[141] John Edmonds, The History of Woad and the Medieval Woad Vat (Little Chalfont: J. Edmonds, 1998), 22; on fashionable black, see the essays by Sophie Jolivet and Paula Hohti in this volume; Michel Pastoureau, Black: The History of a Color, English language ed. (Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press, 2009).

[141] Parchment was exclusively used until the eighteenth century, when Rosalba Carriera (1673 - 1757) introduced ivory as a new support material for miniatures. Paper as support was introduced as late as the nineteenth century, when parchment, ivory and paper were used simultaneously until portrait photography superseded.

[142] See e.g., Goedings, Afsetters en meester-afsetters': de kunst van het kleuren 1480 - 1720.

[143] Their self-made water-colour paint required a certain translucency to keep the printed lines visible, which was acknowledged in contemporary manuals by including specific recommendations for “Colours to be used in Washing, which are not used in Limning” in: Anon., The Excellency of the Pen and Pencil. https://archive.org/details/excellencyofpenp00ratc, last accessed on 19 November 2020.

[144] One of the earliest known alba amicorum is described in Heinzer, “Das Album amicorum (1545 - 1569) des Claude de Senarclens”; another early one is kept today in the Getty Research Institute, Brafman, “Diary of an Obscure German Artist with (Almost) No Friends”. See also the digital collections at the Royal Library of the Netherlands https://www.kb.nl/themas/vriendenboeken and Leiden University Library, Collection guide Alba amicorum Collection (ubl290), last accessed 18 November 2020.

[145] Jenner, A Book of Drawing, Limning, Washing, or Colouring of Maps and Prints. http://www.shipbrook.net/jeff/bookshelf/details.html?bookid=13 , last accessed on 19 November 2020; also Norgate’s Miniatura manuscript was popular and much copied by members of the English nobility and gentry, see Muller & Murrell, Edward Norgate. Miniatura, or The art of limning, 14-20.

[146] Le Begue [MS Latin 6741], fol. 1r, fol. 81v ff. https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b10525796f/f1.item, last accessed on 19 November 2020.

[147] Nash “Pour Couleurs et Autres Choses Prise de Lui...”: The Supply, Acquisition, Cost and Employment of Painters’ Materials at the Burgundian Court, c. 1375-1419,” 97-182.

[148] Campbell “Suppliers of Artists’ Materials to the Burgundian Court,” 183–185.

[149] Bartl et al., Der ‘Liber illuministarum’ aus Kloster Tegernsee, 547.

[150] ADD direct link to the addendum Een cleyn boecxken van swarte watercoleuren.

[151] "Burgundian Black" Summer school ROOTS: Research on the Origins Of Historical Techniques, University of Antwerp, 1-5 July 2019.

[152] Recent studies describe the chemical process of indigotin formation and the biotechnology of woad fermentation vats in more detail, see e.g., Philip John, “Indigo Reduction in the Woad Vat: A Medieval Biotechnology Revealed,” Biologist 53, no. 1 (February 2006): 31–35; Philip John, Stylianos Arghyros, and Nicholson, Sonja, “Indigo-Reducing Bacteria from the Medieval (Isatis Tinctoria L.) Vat: Some Aspects of Their Interaction with Indigo,” Dyes in History and Archeology 21 (2008): 45–49; Anna Hartl et al., “Searching for Blue: Experiments with Woad Fermentation Vats and an Explanation of the Colours through Dye Analysis,” Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 2 (June 2015): 9–39; Dominique Cardon, Le monde des teintures naturelles (Paris: Belin, 2014), 329-332.

[152] "Black", hands-on workshop for master students of painting conservation as part of the course Art Technological Source Research, Conservation & Restoration Department, University of Amsterdam, 20 February 2020.

[153] The listed source literature does not claim to be complete. Literal copies of citations were found in several sources.

[154] Neven, The Strasbourg Manuscript, 115.

[155] Anon., Recueil de recettes [Ms. Fr. 640]. The manuscript is accessible in a critical online edition and English translation: Making and Knowing Project and Smith et al., Secrets of Craft and Nature in Renaissance France. A Digital Critical Edition and English Translation of BnF Ms. Fr. 640, https://edition640.makingandknowing.org, last accessed 28 November 2020.

[156] “Velvets and blacks. One needs [needs] to make thee / middle main layer very d / dark, & its folds & highlights very bright with white, & on the edges ofu / its light, you make a white line. For blue & green velvets, you highlight touch the shading with peach pit black, which is very black. For lake, black of pit coal which makes a reddish black on lake for velvets. The common charcoal makes a whitish black. P

[157] “Armor. Soft wood charcoal makes a bluish color. It is good for making armor.”

[158] Anon., Recueil de recettes [Ms. Fr. 640], see https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b10500001g/f132.item#, last accessed 28 November 2020. The digitized folio is accessible online with the transcription and English translation:
https://edition640.makingandknowing.org/#/folios/63v/tc/63v/tl, last accessed 28 November 2020.

[159] Braekman, “Antwerpse ‘consten ende secreten’ voor verlichters en ‘afsetters’ van gedrukte prenten,” 97.

[160] "This black surpasses all the other blacks in brownness and is suitable for painting black velvet or to draft it.”

[161] Anon. Schoone consten ende secreten aengaende die verlichterie, [Ms. Lat. 7279], fol. 23v-25v, see https://digi.vatlib.it/view/MSS_Vat.lat.7279, last accessed 9 November 2020; here cited after Braekman, “Antwerpse ‘consten ende secreten’ voor verlichters en ‘afsetters’ van gedrukte prenten,” 100 and 116-117.

[162] Peacham, The Gentlemans Exercise, 90, http://archive.org/details/gri_33125008547412, last accessed 19 November 2020.

[163] Norgate, Miniatura or the Art of Limning, ed. Hardie, 98.

[164] "Black color for frocks and berets. Take Kienschwarz [soot from conifer wood] / rub that with a little indigo and lead white. Temper everything well together. Shade with indigo with a little Paris red mixed with it. Highlight this with thin ash paint.", in: Boltz van Ruffach, Illuminierbuch, 138.

[165] Watteeuw and Van Bos, “’Chroniques de Hainaut’. Observaties en resultaten van de analyses op zes miniaturen,” 157-166; Watteeuw and Van Bos, “'Chroniques de Hainaut'. Observations on Rogier van der Weyden Handling the Illuminator’s Brush”.

[166] Panayotova et al., Colour: The Art and Science of Illuminated Manuscripts.

[167] KU Leuven, Book heritage lab, https://theo.kuleuven.be/apps/press/bookheritagelab/, last accessed 19 November 2020.

[168] Fitzwilliam Museum Cambridge, Cambridge illuminations research project, https://www.fitzmuseum.cam.ac.uk/research/cambridgeilluminations, last accessed 19 November 2020.

[169] Rosetti, Plictho de larte de tentori che insegna tenger panni telle banbasi et sede si per larthe magiore come per la comune [first published in 1540]; see also the facsimile, modern edition and English translation by Edelstein, Borghetty and Rosetti, The Plictho; Nicolai, Een Cleyn Verff-Boecken Inhoudende Seer Constighe Saeyet Verwen, Nut En Profytelijck Voor Breyders En Oock Voor Andere Persoonen Die Haer Dit Werck Mede Willen Bemoeyen [2nd ed. 1638].